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PubMed1997

Drinking careers of older male alcoholics in treatment as compared to younger alcoholics and to older social drinkers.

OBJECTIVE: In order to answer the question whether older alcoholics form a distinct group among problem drinkers and within their age cohort, drinking histories of male, older (over 50 years of age) alcoholics in treatment (n = 52) are compared to those of younger alcoholics (n = 55), and to those of older social drinkers (n = 46). Within the older alcoholics category, comparisons are made by age of onset. Changes in consumption volume and onset and remission of heavy drinking, morning drinking and solitary drinking are related to events in other spheres of life. METHOD: In face-to-face interviews, respondents were asked to report drinking behavior in subsequent drinking phases, from the beginning of regular drinking to the present. Events that marked a transition to a new drinking phase, as well as the impact that these events had on the general well-being of the respondents, were assessed using a semistructured interview format. RESULTS: Compared to younger alcoholics, older alcoholics were older when they started drinking regularly, and they report later age at onset of heavy drinking. Older alcoholics and social drinkers were similar with respect to the first years of their drinking career. Older alcoholics with onset of heavy drinking before the age of 35 were similar to younger alcoholics, while older alcoholics with later onset of heavy drinking resembled social drinkers with respect to their earlier drinking history. Alcoholics with later onset more often reported onset in connection with events such as marital disruption. CONCLUSION: Among older alcoholics, a distinct group can be distinguished that may benefit from specific prevention and treatment measures.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Postsecondary education and heavy drinking by young adults: the moderating effect of race.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined racial differences in the relationship between postsecondary education (PSE) and heavy drinking among young adults who participated in the 1998 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse. METHOD: In-home survey data collected from 6,374 18-25 year olds were analyzed to examine black-white differences in the relationship between PSE and past-month heavy drinking (five or more consecutive alcoholic beverages). Logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine the interactive effect of PSE and race on heavy drinking, and the degree to which selected psychosocial risk and protective factors help to explain the differential association between PSE and heavy drinking. RESULTS: The prevalence of past-month heavy drinking was significantly higher among whites with at least some PSE than whites without any PSE (41% vs 30%/6), whereas no differences in past-month heavy drinking were observed among blacks who did and did not have at least some PSE (15% vs 16%). This differential relationship persisted when early initiation of alcohol use and demographic characteristics were adjusted for. The effect of PSE on heavy drinking among whites was substantially reduced by controlling for perceived drinking among friends, friends' social support and subjects' propensity for risk taking or sensation seeking. PSE was inversely, although not significantly, associated with heavy drinking among blacks, after adjusting for early alcohol use and demographic characteristics. This inverse relationship was no longer present after controlling for psychosocial factors (e.g., religiosity, perceived harm of heavy drinking) that were associated with PSE and heavy drinking among blacks. CONCLUSIONS: The apparent effect of college attendance on heavy drinking among young adults is driven by the fact that the majority of young adults who attend college are white. College attendance does not appear to increase the likelihood of heavy drinking among black young adults. Additional research with longitudinal data is needed to better understand how the college environment affects alcohol use among whites, and whether blacks who attend predominantly white colleges are more likely to drink heavily than those who attend traditionally black colleges.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

Husband's and wife's drinking: unilateral or bilateral influences among newlyweds in a general population sample.

OBJECTIVE: It is often assumed that a husband's drinking influences his wife's drinking, but that the wife's drinking has no impact on her husband's drinking. However, there are little data that examine this. This article explores drinking patterns over the transition to marriage to assess whether changes in drinking patterns are influenced by the spouse's drinking and whether this influence is comparable for husbands and wives. METHOD: Approximately 500 husbands and wives were recruited after applying for their marriage licenses and participated in a longitudinal study of alcohol and marriage. Couples completed questionnaires that assessed alcohol use over the preceding year. These questionnaires were completed at the time of marriage and at the first anniversary. RESULTS: Structural equation models were used to examine the longitudinal relationships between husband and wife drinking. The final model indicated that husbands and wives manifested similar drinking patterns at the time of marriage that could not be attributed to sociodemographic factors. Husbands' drinking at premarriage was significantly associated with wives' drinking after marriage, but the reverse was not true. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that husbands and wives display similar patterns in alcohol use, in part because husbands and wives marry similar individuals and because common life experiences impact the drinking of couples in a comparable manner. The similarity also occurs as the reflection of a husband influence on the wife. However, this process appears to be unilateral in that there was no evidence that the wife's drinking had an impact on the drinking of her husband.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1994

[Quantity-frequency scale (QF Scale) for adolescent problem drinking].

From 1990 to 1992, we surveyed 14,438 Japanese high school students from nine prefectures on drinking behavior. Based on this survey, we developed a new Quantity-Frequency Scale (QF Scale) for adolescent problem drinking. Each adolescent is scored from 0 to 6 by the QF Scale, which is composed of scores of drinking quantities and frequencies. Adolescents were assessed as normal adolescent, drinkers and problem drinkers by QF Scale scores. The normal adolescent (score 0) categorized by the QF Scale drinks none or little and obeys the Law Prohibiting Adolescents from Drinking. The drinker (score 1-3) categorized by the QF Scale drinks at least several times a year, but drinks little each time. The problem drinker (score 4-6) categorized by the QF Scale drinks several times a week and has at least two drink (1 drink is equivalent to a glass of beer) each time, once a week with at least 3 drinks, or once or twice a month with at least 6 drinks each time. The problem drinkers show a physical, psychological and social high risk for alcohol. The validity of the QF Scale was examined. The results showed that the problem drinkers had significantly frequent blackout, significantly frequent drinking when they had emotional conflicts or they were alone, and drank significantly more hard liquor than the drinkers and normal adolescents. Among the high school students surveyed, 39.5% were normal adolescents, 43.2% were drinkers and 17.4% were problem drinkers. In conclusion, the QF Scale is a useful instrument for assessment of adolescent problem drinking.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1996

[Job strain and drinking behavior].

The aim of this survey study was to explore the influence of work on individual's drinking behavior. From October 1994 to March 1995, the present researchers implemented a self-administered questionnaire survey on workers in the manufacturing sector in Metropolitan Kaohsiung area, southern Taiwan. Of the 1,117 subjects selected, 668 (61.8%) stated that they had had one or more drinks during the preceding month. The average daily consumption of alcohol was 0.2 +/- 0.9 drinks (with a range of 0 to 12 drinks and a median of 0.02 drinks). In addition, 188 (28.8%) of the subjects reported having experienced drinking-related problems during the preceding month, and 35 respondents (5.2%) gave escape from job stress as the reason for their drinking in the preceding month. The result of multivariate analyses showed that workers who reported less autonomy in their job were more likely to experience drinking-related problems (odds ratio [OR] = 1.3) and to drinking for psychological relief (OR = 1.2); that workers who reported more demanding job conditions were more likely to drink for escape (OR = 2.5) but had lower levels of drinking (t = -2.5, p = 0.01); and that workers who reported high levels of job strain were more likely to experience drinking-related problems and to drink for relief but had lower levels of drinking. The details and implications of this result will be discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Intake occasion affects the serum cholesterol lowering of a plant sterol-enriched single-dose yoghurt drink in mildly hypercholesterolaemic subjects.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the impact of intake occasion (with or without a meal), and product fat level on the cholesterol-lowering efficacy of a plant sterol (PS)-enriched (3 g/day) single-dose yoghurt drink. DESIGN: Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel study with a 4 weeks run-in and 4 weeks intervention period. SETTING: Subjects recruited from the general community. SUBJECTS: A total of 184 moderate hypercholesterolaemic subjects (81 men and 103 women) (age 57+/-2 years) completed the study. INTERVENTIONS: The study product was a 100-g single-dose yoghurt drink with or without added PS in the form of PS esters. The subjects were randomly assigned to one of five 4-week treatments: (i) drink A (0.1% dairy fat, 2.2% total fat) with a meal, (ii) drink A without a meal, (iii) drink B (1.5% dairy fat, 3.3% total fat) with a meal, (iv) drink B without a meal and (v) placebo drink with a meal. RESULTS: LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C) was significantly lowered when the single-dose drink was taken with a meal independent of its fat content (drink A: -9.5% (P<0.001, 95% CI: -13.8 to -5.2); drink B: -9.3% (P<0.001, 95% CI: -13.7 to -4.9)) as compared to placebo. When consumed without a meal, LDL-C was also significantly decreased (drink A: -5.1% (P<0.05, 95% CI: -9.4 to -0.8); drink B: -6.9% (P<0.01, 95% CI: -11.3 to -2.5) as compared to placebo, however the effect was significantly smaller as compared to the intake with a meal. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that a PS-ester-enriched single-dose yoghurt drink effectively reduces LDL-C irrespective of the fat content of the product. A substantially larger decrease in serum cholesterol concentration was achieved when the single-dose drink was consumed with a meal emphasizing the importance of the intake occasion for optimal cholesterol-lowering efficacy. SPONSORSHIP: Unilever Research and Development, Vlaardingen, The Netherlands.

Anticholesteremic Agents↗

PubMed1998

Two-year longitudinal study of alcohol expectancies and drinking among Norwegian adolescents.

AIMS: The potential importance of alcohol outcome expectancies in the initiation and maintenance of drinking has been supported by studies showing that these expectancies are present before drinking begins, and that they predict drinking both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Although initiation of drinking behavior may be influenced by expectancy, subsequent drinking experience may modify expectations. We used structural modeling techniques to investigate the relative influence of expectancy and drinking in a three-wave longitudinal study of Norwegian adolescents. DESIGN: Survey incorporating self-administered questionnaires. SETTING: Twenty-two schools in Hordaland County on the west coast of Norway. PARTICIPANTS: Nine hundred and twenty-four seventh-grade students; 45.7% female. MEASUREMENTS: Alcohol use (frequency, quantity, drunkenness); the Norwegian version of the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire for adolescents. FINDINGS: Among students who were already drinkers upon entry into the study, expectations of positive social effects of alcohol predicted drinking longitudinally. Among those who began drinking during the study, these social expectancies predicted drinking initiation, but drinking also influenced subsequent expectancy in the early stages of drinking. CONCLUSIONS: These results support a reciprocal relationship of drinking to positive expectancy, highlighting the importance both of expectancies on influencing drinking, and of early drinking experiences on the development of positive expectancies.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

A new measure of binge drinking: prevalence and correlates in a probability sample of undergraduates.

BACKGROUND: A standard measure defines binge drinking as the consumption of 5 or more drinks in a row for men (4 or more drinks for women) on at least 1 occasion during the past 2 weeks. A revised operational definition of binge drinking was developed by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism in 2004 and incorporated the duration of the drinking episode in addition to the quantity of alcohol consumed. This study compares the standard and new binge measures for overall and subgroup prevalence rates; associations with gender, race/ethnicity, and age of drinking onset; and associations with negative drinking consequences. METHODS: A probability sample of 4,580 randomly selected college students (50.3% female, M age=19.9, SD=2.0) at a large Midwestern university in the United States completed a Web-based survey of alcohol and other drug use. Participants reported on past 2-week binge drinking using the standard measure and past-year binge drinking using the new measure. RESULTS: The longer past-year time frame of the new measure yielded a higher prevalence estimate of binge drinking (63.6%) compared with the 2-week standard measure (53.2%). Approximately 9.9% of those who were classified as binge drinkers using the 2-week standard measure were classified as non-binge drinkers using the new measure specification of a 2-hour duration for the drinking episode. The past-year new binge measure was positively associated with negative drinking consequences even when the 2-week measure was statistically controlled. CONCLUSIONS: Using a longer time frame and incorporating the duration of the drinking episode, the new measure of binge drinking appears to capture an important element of risky alcohol involvement in college students that is not fully assessed by the standard measure.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Further modification to soft drinks to minimise erosion. A study in situ.

Soft drinks have been successfully modified to reduce enamel erosion. The aim of this study was to further modify an original low erosive blackcurrant drink product by the addition of a gum, to manipulate more favourably other drink parameters. The study was a single-blind, randomised four treatment crossover design involving 12 healthy volunteers. During 10 working-day study periods, subjects wore enamel samples in the mid palatal region of a removable appliance. Specimens were taped to expose a 2-mm enamel window. The drinks under test were: (1) Orange juice, (2) Original blackcurrant drink, (3) Water, and (4) Experimental blackcurrant drink. Drinks were imbibed at 250-ml volumes 4 times a day during appliance wearing from 09.00 to 17.00. Appliances were removed at lunchtime. Measurements of specimens were made at baseline, 2, 5 and 10 days using a profilometer. One 5-day and one 10-day specimen from each subject during each treatment were ultrasonicated. Significant differences, in erosion between drinks, were seen at days 5 and 10. Comparisons of preselected pairs of drinks of interest showed significantly reduced erosion by the two blackcurrant drinks compared to orange juice with no significant differences from water. The original blackcurrant drink produced significantly less erosion than the experimental drink. Ultrasonication removed enamel from the Orange juice specimens but very little from those exposed to water and the two blackcurrant drinks. Extrapolating the effects of both blackcurrant drinks suggested that alone they should not cause significant clinical erosion in a lifetime's intake of 1 litre per day.

Adult↗

PubMed1987

Stimulus- and pellet-induced drinking during a successive discrimination.

In three experiments, interim water drinking was examined in rats exposed to a multiple schedule whose two components were extinction and a variable-time 30-s schedule of food delivery. Two different drinking patterns were observed in Experiment 1. Pellet-induced drinking, characterized by high rates of postpellet drinking in the variable-time component, with little or no drinking in extinction, occurred when the acquisition of stable postpellet drinking preceded discrimination training. Stimulus-induced drinking, characterized by a burst of drinking at the onset of extinction, with no drinking during the variable-time schedule, occurred when discrimination training preceded all other experimental conditions. With extended training, stimulus-induced drinking eventually was accompanied by postpellet drinking. In Experiment 2, the rate of stimulus-induced drinking and the number of sessions during which it occurred without postpellet drinking were found to be inversely related to component duration. In Experiment 3, the rate of schedule-induced drinking was found to vary directly with component duration.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2006

Schedule-induced alcohol drinking: non-selective effects of acamprosate and naltrexone.

Acamprosate and naltrexone are therapeutically effective drugs that promote abstinence and prevent drinking relapse among alcohol-dependent patients, and dose-dependently decrease alcohol self-administration in animals. The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the behavioral specificity of acamprosate and naltrexone treatment in mice on alcohol drinking elicited in a schedule-induced polydipsia (SIP) task. Food-deprived male C57BL/6J (B6) mice were divided into three groups assigned to a 5% alcohol SIP, water SIP, or a 1-hour limited access regulatory water drinking task. Injections (intraperitoneal) of acute (0, 50, 100, 200, 400 mg/kg) and chronic (2 x 100 mg/kg, 10 days) acamprosate, or naltrexone (0, 1.0, 2.5, 5.0 mg/kg) were administered. Behavioral drug specificity was determined by comparing alterations in alcohol or water consumption in SIP with alterations in limited access drinking. Additionally, drug effects on drinking-specific measures (g/kg consumption and lick efficiency) were compared with those of non-drinking measures (head entries for food and locomotor activity) during SIP. In comparison with saline injections, acute acamprosate (400 mg/kg) reduced both alcohol and water drinking in both SIP and the regulatory drinking conditions, but had no significant effects on non-drinking measures. Chronic administration of acamprosate reduced both alcohol and water drinking during SIP, but did not significantly affect regulatory drinking or non-drinking measures. Naltrexone (1.0, 2.5, 5.0 mg/kg) reduced alcohol and water drinking in both paradigms, and at the highest dose, significantly reduced head entries for food. These results indicate that acamprosate (acute and chronic) and naltrexone are relatively non-selective in their effects on alcohol self-administration in this task.

Acamprosate↗

PubMed1986

Fluid balance in exercise dehydration and rehydration with different glucose-electrolyte drinks.

After exercise dehydration (3% of body weight) the restoration of water and electrolyte balance was followed in 6 male subjects. During a 2 h rest period after exercise, a drink of one of four solutions was given as 9 X 300 ml portions at 15 min intervals: control (C-drink), high potassium (K-drink), high sodium (Na-drink) or high sugar (S-drink). An exercise test (submaximal and supramaximal work) was performed before dehydration and after rehydration. Dehydration reduced plasma volume by 16%, a process reversed on resting even before fluid ingestion began, due to release of water accumulated in the muscles during exercise. After 2 h rehydration, plasma volume was above the initial resting value with all 4 drinks. The final plasma volumes after the Na-drink (+14%) and C-drink (+9%) were significantly higher than after the K- and S-drinks. The Na-drink favoured filling of the extracellular compartment, whereas the K- and S-drinks favoured intracellular rehydration. In spite of the higher than normal plasma volume after rehydration, mean heart rate during the submaximal test was 10 bpm higher after rest and rehydration than in the initial test, and was not different between the drinks. The amount of work which could be performed in the supramaximal test (105% VO2max) was 20% less after exercise dehydration and subsequent rest and rehydration than before. This reduction was similar for all drinks, and may be due to a decreased muscle glycogen content (70% of initial) at the time of the second test.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1990

Histamine in brain may have no role for histaminergic control of food-related drinking in the rat.

Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats surgically fitted with a cannula positioned in the third cerebral ventricle were tested for drinking after exogenous histamine or after eating with or without antagonism of H1 and/or H2 receptors for histamine using intracerebroventricular (ICV) dexbrompheniramine (DXB; 12.5-50 micrograms) or cimetidine (C; 25-100 micrograms). Histamine (0.06-16 micrograms) given ICV failed to elicit drinking. For rats drinking in response to subcutaneous (SC) histamine, ICV DXB alone did not affect drinking, whereas ICV DXB plus C, and ICV C given alone inhibited drinking. Such inhibition appeared to be relatively selective for drinking elicited by SC histamine, because ICV 50 micrograms DXB plus 100 micrograms C abolished drinking elicited by SC histamine, but failed to inhibit drinking after 12-hr water deprivation. When rats ate and drank after food deprivation, ICV DXB alone and ICV DXB plus C did not significantly inhibit food-related water intake. The inhibition of food-related drinking by ICV 100 micrograms C given alone was accompanied by inhibition of eating. In summary, histamine had unimpressive dipsogenic effects when given ICV, ICV DXB and C inhibited drinking elicited by SC histamine, but ICV DXB and C failed to inhibit food-related drinking in a manner parallel to the selective effects of intraperitoneal injection of these drugs on drinking elicited by eating. This suggests that it is histamine and histamine receptors in the periphery rather than in brain that have the predominant role for a histaminergic mechanism for drinking elicited by eating in the rat, but our findings do not rule out a role(s) for histamine in brain in the control of ingestive behavior.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

An empirical classification of drinking patterns among alcoholics: binge, episodic, sporadic, and steady.

Steady (daily, continuous) versus nonsteady (binge, episodic, bout, intermittent) drinking pattern have been influential Jellinek's (1960) formulation of delta and gamma drinkers, and are used as variables in various typological systems and drinker profiles. However, definitions of drinking patterns vary widely across studies, and most studies rely on one self-report item to establish a subject's pattern. To systematize and empirically test drinking-pattern schemas, we developed detailed definitions of binge, episodic, sporadic, and steady drinking patterns. A computer algorithm was written in SAS to classify 94 male alcoholics participating in outpatient conjoint therapy, using 6-month pretreatment drinking data from the Timeline Followback Interview. The final classification was: 3 (3%) binge, 33 (35%) episodic, 12 (13%) sporadic, and 40 (43%) steady drinkers. Six (6%) were unclassifiable (due to too few drinking days or too many interruptions to the pattern) by the computer. Episodic, sporadic, and steady drinkers did not differ in demographics, alcohol-related consequences, global psychological distress, or marital satisfaction. Steady drinking was associated with later onset of drinking problems (> 25), while episodic and sporadic drinking were associated with earlier onset. These results are contrary to current use of "binge drinking" as a variable associated with Type 1 alcoholism. Predictive validity analyses indicated that steady drinkers continued to drink more frequently than episodic and sporadic drinkers during treatment and 6 months posttreatment. Also, preliminary data indicate that pretreatment drinking pattern may be predictive of similar within-treatment urge-to-drink patterns. Implications for research and treatment are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Correlates of heavy drinking and alcohol related problems among men and women in drug treatment programs.

A series of analyses were conducted to explore if there were significant differences in heavy drinking and alcohol-related problems in clients admitted to different types of drug treatment programs and whether such differences, if found, could be attributed to variation in social characteristics, drug use behavior, drinking norms, drinking contexts, or in reasons for combining alcohol and drug use. Men and women (N = 246) in four types of publicly funded treatment programs were interviewed at intake regarding drinking and drug use patterns and related problems. The results of the study showed significant differences in drinking behavior and alcohol-related problems of clients in different treatment modalities. Men in a county jail substance abuse program exhibited the highest frequency of heavy drinking and highest rates of alcohol problems; clients of methadone programs reported the lowest rates and those in therapeutic communities described intermediate rates. A series of regression analyses showed that the only significant predictors of the frequency of heavier drinking and drunkenness were drinking context and reasons for combining alcohol and drug use. In addition, age (youthfulness) was associated with the frequency of getting drunk. The most powerful predictors of alcohol-related problems were the frequency of getting drunk and drinking to enhance the effects of other drugs. Heavy drinking and drinking to prevent getting sick from drugs were also significantly associated with drinking problems. The frequency of drug use (by specific type) and most social characteristics showed no direct association with drinking patterns or problems.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Drinking location and risk of alcohol-impaired driving among high school seniors.

This study investigated environmental predictors of teenagers' alcohol-impaired driving, such as drinking location and alcohol source. Data for this study were part of the 15 Communities Mobilizing for Change on Alcohol Project. Relationships between drinking-driver status, alcohol source, drinking location, alcohol consumption, and individual demographics were determined for the full sample as well as for males and females separately, using mixed-model, logistic regression. Analyses were restricted to high school seniors who were drivers and who consumed alcohol within the last 30 days (N = 1,914). For males and females, the risk of alcohol-impaired driving rose significantly with increases in both the number of binge-drinking events and estimates of the number of drinks required to impair their driving. Drinking location was important in that students who drank outdoors or in a moving car or truck were at significant risk for drinking-driving. Drinking-driving risks specific to females were number of drinking occasions and drinking at someone else's house. Strategies to prevent drinking-driving among teenagers need to consider drinking patterns as well as drinking locations for both males and females.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Impact of a 10-year nation-wide alcohol campaign on knowledge of sensible drinking limits in Denmark.

In Great Britain and in Denmark, strong efforts have been made to influence knowledge on upper threshold for hazardous drinking. In Denmark, a campaign has been repeated every week 40 from 1990 to 2000 with information on the sensible drinking limits of 21 drinks per week for men and 14 drinks per week for women. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of this ongoing campaign on the level of knowledge of sensible drinking limits for men and women. Random representative samples of 1030 adult Danes were telephone interviewed each year during 1994-1999. Our main finding was that the level of knowledge of sensible drinking limits for own sex increased in all subsets of the population throughout the period. However, at the end of the study period (1999) a total of 80% of highly educated young (18-25 years) men knew sensible drinking limits for own sex, while only 35% of uneducated older (more than 65 years) men had knowledge on sensible drinking limits. The proportions were similar among women. Subjects admitting an intake higher than sensible for own sex, i.e. 21 and 14 drinks per week, respectively, had the highest knowledge of these drinking limits. We conclude that public health campaigns, such as the sensible drinking limit campaign, certainly has an impact on level of awareness in the general population. Furthermore, those drinking more than 21 and 14 drinks per week, respectively, are reached by these campaigns.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Gender differences in the relationship between alcohol consumption and drink problems are largely accounted for by body water.

It is widely reported that women drink less and have a lower prevalence of drink problems than men, but the gender differences in the relationship between level of drinking and drink problems have rarely been investigated quantitatively. This paper reports results from the Medical Research Council National Survey of Health and Development (the 1946 British Cohort) when the subjects were 43 years old. Using 7-day recall for alcohol consumption and CAGE scores of 2, 3 or 4 for drink problems, it was found that the prevalence of drink problems increased with level of alcohol consumption. Women were more likely than men to report drink problems at the same level of alcohol consumption. However, this gender difference was largely accounted for by individual differences in weight of body water. Beer accounted for the excess of men's drinking over women's and the proportion of alcohol consumed as beer was inversely related to drink problems. Eighty per cent of women and 52% of men who had drink problems in the past year reported drinking less than an average of 3 U (women) or 4 U (men) a day in the past week. As drinking levels in women begin to approach those in men, rates of drink problems in women are likely to overtake those in men because of women's greater physiological sensitivity to the effects of alcohol.

Adult↗