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PubMed1988

Exposures to carbon dioxide in the poultry processing industry.

The use of dry ice has increased dramatically in poultry processing plants because of changes in the fast food industry. Concentrations of carbon dioxide in four such plants were measured and were found to exceed the Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health Level (50,000 ppm) inside holding coolers where ventilation is poor. In other areas, where dry ice is delivered to poultry packages, time-weighted average exposures can exceed the threshold limit value of 5000 ppm by substantial margins, even if local exhaust ventilation systems are present. Reports of adverse health effects from carbon dioxide exposure and various control measures are reviewed. Recommendations regarding sampling and analytical techniques also are presented. Operators of poultry plants where dry ice is used need to recognize the occupational hazards of exposure to carbon dioxide.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

A field evaluation of air sampling methods for TNT and RDX.

A comparative field study was conducted at an ammunition plant to evaluate the use of several sampling techniques for 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX). The objective was to compare the currently recommended combination Tenax-plus-filter tubes with the older, colorimetric diethylaminoethanol bubbler method which was in use in July 1950 when the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) published their first Threshold Limit Values (TLVs). These values included a TLV of 1.5 mg/m3 for TNT. Regular Tenax tubes and 37-mm glass fiber filters also were tested since they also had been used by the United States Army for a number of years. The survey results showed fair agreement between the bubbler and tube methods in those instances where sufficient TNT was present to produce a measurable color in the diethylaminoethanol (DEAE). The glass fiber filters were not satisfactory for TNT retention, but the two types of tubes both were effective. The combination tubes were superior for RDX and appeared to be the best overall sampling medium.

Air↗
PubMed1989

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy for monitoring airborne gases and vapors of industrial hygiene concern.

There are few available analytical methods with which an industrial hygienist can perform near real-time identification and quantitation of gases and vapors in the workplace. At present, the instruments that come the closest to fulfilling this need are based on either Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy or mass spectroscopy (MS). In order to investigate the applicability of FTIR to the qualitative and quantitative analysis of gas and vapor emissions in the workplace, an investigation was carried out to choose optimal conditions that could maximize the signal from individual target analytes and minimize the potential for interference. In all cases, the limit of detection (LOD) of individual air contaminants was below the threshold limit value (TLV).

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗
PubMed1989

Evaluation of the applicability of fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy for quantitation of the components of airborne solvent vapors in air.

Monitoring of solvent vapors can be performed by a variety of methods. Recent studies by this research group have shown that Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) can be a useful method for monitoring mixtures of vapors in air. The use of FTIR for the quantitation of individual components in a stimulated 12-component paint solvent mixture is demonstrated, and optimal conditions for instruments use are detailed. The limit of detection (LOD) for each component is well below the threshold limit value (TLV), although there is a significant degradation of LOD in the mixture when compared to the values obtained for individual compounds. Accurate quantitation is obtained through the use of a least squares fit program.

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗
PubMed1990

Measurement of organic vapors at sub-TLV concentrations using fast gas chromatography.

Gas chromatography usually is considered too slow a method to be useful for real-time or near real-time monitoring. If the chromatographic system is optimized for speed, however, it is possible to reduce retention times significantly. Recently, a fast gas chromatograph (GC) was described that allows many simple separations to be completed in 10 sec or less. The system features a gas-cooled, electrically heated, capillary cold trap that focuses the sample as an extremely narrow band at the front of the column. In this study the fast GC was used to measure the concentrations of benzene, toluene, and xylene in test atmospheres generated in the laboratory. The measurements then were compared to simultaneous measurements made with a conventional GC. At concentrations ranging from the threshold limit value (TLV) to one-tenth of the TLV, the fast GC decreased retention times by a factor of 10- to 100-fold relative to the conventional GC, with no loss of precision or accuracy. These results indicate that it may be feasible to develop a high-speed monitoring system based on a GC design similar to the one in this study.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed1991

An evaluation of airborne nickel, zinc, and lead exposure at hot dip galvanizing plants.

Industrial hygiene surveys were conducted at three hot dip galvanizing plants to determine occupational exposure to nickel, zinc, and lead. All three plants employed the "dry process" and used 2% nickel, by weight, in their zinc baths. A total of 32 personal and area air samples were taken. The air samples were analyzed for nickel, zinc, and lead. Some samples were also analyzed for various species of nickel (i.e., metallic, soluble, and oxidic). The airborne concentrations observed for nickel and its three species, zinc, and lead at the three plants were all well below the current and proposed threshold limit values recommended by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗
PubMed1992

Field evaluation of a sampling and analytical method for environmental levels of airborne hexavalent chromium.

Hexavalent chromium, Cr(VI), has been classified as a human respiratory carcinogen. Airborne Cr(VI) emissions are associated with a number of industrial sources including metal plating, tanning, chromite ore processing, and spray painting operations; combustion sources such as automobiles and incinerators; and fugitive dusts from contaminated soil. There has been considerable interest within industry and the regulatory community to assess the potential cancer risks of workers exposed to Cr(VI) at levels substantially below the threshold limit value (TLV) of 50 micrograms/m3. To date, only the workplace sampling and analytical method (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health [NIOSH] Method 7600) has been validated for measuring airborne Cr(VI), and it can accurately measure concentrations only as low as 500 ng/m3. This paper describes the field evaluation of a sampling and analytical method for the quantitation of airborne Cr(VI) at concentrations 5000 times lower than the current standard method (as low as 0.1 ng/m3). The collection method uses three 500-mL Greenberg-Smith impingers in series, operated at 15 Lpm for 24 hr. All three impingers are filled with 200 mL of a slightly alkaline (pH approximately 8) sodium bicarbonate buffer solution. The results of validation tests showed that both Cr(VI) and trivalent chromium, Cr(III), were stable in the collection medium and that samples may be stored for up to 100 days without appreciable loss of Cr(VI). Method precision based on the pooled coefficient of variation for replicate samples was 10.4%, and method accuracy based on the mean percent recovery of spiked samples was 94%. Both the precision and accuracy of the impinger method were within NIOSH criteria. This method could be used to measure ambient concentrations of Cr(VI) in the workplace caused by fugitive emissions from manufacturing processes or chromium-contaminated soils at workplace concentrations well below the current TLV (50 micrograms/m3) or permissible exposure limit (100 micrograms/m3).

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗
PubMed1992

The contributions to solvent uptake by skin and inhalation exposure.

Solvent exposures were assessed among 97 auto body repair workers in order to determine whether skin contact represented a significant route of exposure. Each subject's cumulative skin exposure was ranked categorically based on simple observation: 49 none, 33 incidental or low, and 15 moderate or high. The median time-weighted average air exposure to solvents was 8.4% of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) combined solvent threshold limit value (TLV) with a range of 0-62% TLV, including toluene (median 4 ppm) and xylenes (median 0.9 ppm). Urine methyl hippuric acids (MHAs, metabolites of xylenes) were low compared to the ACGIH biological exposure index (BEI) with a median of 2% and a range of 0-12% BEI but were strongly correlated with both the level of airborne xylenes and skin exposure when considered simultaneously by using analysis of covariance (R = 0.91, p less than 0.0001). MHA excretion attributable to skin exposure for 15 min or more generally was comparable to or greater than that from associated air exposure over the full work shift. This study had limited ability to assess quantitatively the contributions of toluene exposures, but there was evidence that skin exposures also contributed significantly to toluene absorption. Air sampling will substantially underestimate a worker's total solvent dose in the setting of moderate or high skin exposure. Simple observation was effective in identifying workers in this sample who appeared to have sufficient skin exposure to produce a measurable increase in solvent uptake.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Design and evaluation of a solid sampler for the monitoring of airborne 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) and its prepolymers in two-component spray painting.

An active, solvent-free solid sampler was developed for the collection of 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) aerosol and prepolymers. The sampler was made of a filter impregnated with 1-(2-methoxyphenyl)piperazine contained in a filter holder. Interferences with HDI were observed when a set of cellulose acetate filters and a polystyrene filter holder were used; a glass fiber filter and polypropylene filter cassette gave better results. The applicability of the sampling and analytical procedure was validated with a test chamber, constructed for the dynamic generation of HDI aerosol and prepolymers in commercial two-component spray paints (Desmodur N75) used in car refinishing. The particle size distribution, temporal stability, and spatial uniformity of the simulated aerosol were established in order to test the sampler. The monitoring of aerosol concentrations was conducted with the solid sampler paired to the reference impinger technique (impinger flasks contained 10 mL of 0.5 mg/mL 1-(2-methoxyphenyl)piperazine in toluene) under a controlled atmosphere in the test chamber. Analyses of derivatized HDI and prepolymers were carried out by using high-performance liquid chromatography and ultraviolet detection. The correlation between the solvent-free and the impinger techniques appeared fairly good (Y = 0.979X-0.161; R = 0.978), when the tests were conducted in the range of 0.1 to 10 times the threshold limit value (TLV) for HDI monomer and up to 60 micrograms/m3 (3 U.K. TLVs) for total -N=C=O groups.

Aerosols↗
PubMed1992

Cobalt exposure in a carbide tip grinding process.

Reports relating hard metal disease or nonspecific respiratory symptoms to tungsten or cobalt exposure have been published in the past 20 yr. This report discusses a work site investigation of a small company, employing approximately 50 workers, producing carbide tip saw blades for the woodworking industry. Cobalt exposure was characterized by ambient air monitoring (area and personnel), particle size determination, and biological monitoring. Area sampling for cadmium, cobalt, and tungsten indicated low ambient air levels in all manufacturing areas except the grinding department, which had cobalt air levels approaching the threshold limit value of 0.05 mg/m3. Area airborne cobalt exposure levels measured over six shifts in the grinding department ranged from 0.017 to 0.12 mg/m3 for the total collection method and 0.002 to 0.028 mg/m3 for the method collecting respirable particles. Cobalt content in the total and respirable fractions was similar. Urine monitoring indicated production workers have elevated cobalt levels, and the grinders' levels were higher than other production workers. The grinding coolant was found to have elevated cobalt concentrations. A survey of coolants from nine carbide grinding shops indicated the elevated cobalt concentrations may be common.

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗
PubMed1992

Exposure to dust, endotoxins, and fungi in the animal feed industry.

In the Dutch animal feed industry, approximately 6000 workers are exposed to organic dust, originating mainly from raw materials such as grain, pulses (peas and beans), and waste products from the vegetable oil and starch industries. In this study, 79 stationary dust samples and 530 personal dust samples from eight animal feed production facilities were analyzed. The stationary total dust samples showed gravimetric concentrations ranging from 0.2 to 25 mg/m3 (geometric mean [GM] 1.3 mg/m3). Concentrations of smaller particle fractions (respirable, thoracic, and inspirable dust) were considerably lower. Personal inspirable dust concentrations were considerably higher than stationary concentrations and were strongly related to job titles. Pooled personal inspirable dust concentrations ranged from 0.2 to 450 mg/m3 (GM = 2.4 mg/m3). After adjusting for differences between inspirable and total dust, 25% of the measurements exceeded the Dutch maximum allowed concentration (MAC) for total nuisance dust (10 mg/m3) and 42% exceeded the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists' threshold limit value for grain dust (4 mg/m3). Endotoxin concentrations ranged from 0.2 to 1870 ng/m3 inspirable dust (GM = 5.1 ng/m3). Endotoxin appeared to be less prevalent in respirable dust than in larger dust fractions. Concentrations in dust appeared to be related to stages in the production process. Colony-forming units (cfu) of fungi ranged from 130 to 15,300 cfu/m3 (GM = 2300 cfu/m3) and were in parallel measurements more strongly related to endotoxin concentrations than to dust concentrations. Clearly, workers in the Dutch animal feed industry are frequently exposed to dust levels above recommended Dutch and American levels. Exposure levels to endotoxin and to fungi are quantified.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗
PubMed1992

Pulmonary effects of inhaled zinc oxide in human subjects, guinea pigs, rats, and rabbits.

Occupational exposure to freshly formed zinc oxide (ZnO) particles (less than 1.0 micron aerodynamic diameter) produces a well-characterized response known as metal fume fever. An 8-hr threshold limit value (TLV) of 5 mg/m3 has been established to prevent adverse health effects because of exposure to ZnO fumes. Because animal toxicity studies have demonstrated pulmonary effects near the current TLV, the present study examined the time course and dose-response of the pulmonary injury produced by inhaled ZnO in guinea pigs, rats, rabbits, and human volunteers. The test animals were exposed to 0, 2.5, or 5.0 mg/m3 ZnO for up to 3 hr and their lungs lavaged. Both the lavage fluid and recovered cells were examined for evidence of inflammation or altered cell function. The lavage fluid from guinea pigs and rats exposed to 5 mg/m3 had significant increases in total cells, lactate dehydrogenase, beta-glucuronidase, and protein content. These changes were greatest 24 hr after exposure. Guinea pig alveolar macrophage function was depressed as evidenced by in vitro phagocytosis of opsonized latex beads. Significant changes in lavage fluid parameters were also observed in guinea pigs and rats exposed to 2.5 mg/m3 ZnO. In contrast, rabbits showed no increase in biochemical or cellular parameters following a 2-hr exposure to 5 mg/m3 ZnO. Differences in total lung burden of ZnO, as determined in additional animals by atomic absorption spectroscopy, appeared to account for the observed differences in species responses. Although the lungs of guinea pigs and rats retained approximately 20% and 12% of the inhaled dose, respectively, rabbits retained only 5%.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Exposures to quartz, diesel, dust, and welding fumes during heavy and highway construction.

Personal samples for exposure to dust, diesel exhaust, quartz, and welding fume were collected on heavy and highway construction workers. The respirable, thoracic, and inhalable fractions of dust and quartz exposures were estimated from 260 personal impactor samples. Respirable quartz exposures exceeded the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommended exposure limit (REL) in 7-31% of cases for the trades sampled. More than 50% of the samples in the installation of drop ceilings and wall tiles and concrete finish operations exceeded the NIOSH REL for quartz. Thoracic exposures to quartz and dust exceeded respirable exposures by a factor of 4.5 and 2.8, respectively. Inhalable exposures to quartz and dust exceeded respirable exposures by a factor of 25.6 and 9.3, respectively. These findings are important due to the identification of quartz as a carcinogen by the National Toxicology Program and the International Agency for Research on Cancer. Fourteen percent of the personal samples for EC (n = 261), collected as a marker for diesel exhaust, exceeded the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) threshold limit value (TLV) for diesel exhaust. Seventeen of the 22 (77%) samples taken during a partially enclosed welding operation reached or exceeded the ACGIH TLV of 5 mg/m3 for welding fume.

Boston↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Task-based assessment of occupational vibration and noise exposures in forestry workers.

Forty-two noise exposures and 164 whole-body (WBV) and hand-arm (HAV) vibration exposures were collected from 43 forestry workers in six trades employed by two forestry companies. Data were collected on 10 days over 8 weeks during various felling, logging, and log handling operations. Up to 5 volunteers were monitored for noise and vibration daily using datalogging noise dosimeters, which provided daily time-weighted averages (TWAs) and 1-min averages; and a precision sound level meter equipped to measure human vibration, which provided triaxial HAV and WBV event-weighted averages (AEQS). Workers completed a short questionnaire throughout the workday detailing the timing and number of tasks performed and equipment used. Substantial overexposures to noise and vibration were seen; for example, 60% of Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) TWAs and 83% of National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) noise TWAs exceeded 85 dBA, 33-53% of the axis-specific HAV AEQS exceeded the 8-hour American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists' HAV threshold limit value, and 34% of all summary weighted WBV AEQS exceeded the Commission of the European Communities' 8-hour exposure limit. The mean for 99 WBV summary weighted AEQ was 3.53 +/- 7.12 m/sec2, whereas the mean for 65 HAV summary weighted AEQ was 5.45 +/- 5.25 m/sec2. The mean OSHA TWA was 86.1 +/- 6.2 dBA, whereas the mean NIOSH TWA was 90.2 +/- 5.1 dBA. The task and tool with the highest exposure levels were unbelling chokers on landings and chain saws (noise), log processing and frontend loaders (WBV), and notching stumps and chain saws (HAV). An internal validation substudy indicated excellent agreement between worker-reported and researcher-documented tasks and tools.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Exposure to formaldehyde among animal health students.

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the exposure to formaldehyde in 2 groups each with 18 students in animal health technology from two different training centers (TC) during a 3-hour weekly laboratory session in biology. Personal sampling during the session was done with passive bubblers for formaldehyde. The analysis of formaldehyde was done by visible absorption spectrometry according to NIOSH method 3500. The students in TC 1 were exposed to formaldehyde levels ranging from less than 0.11 to 0.76 mg/m3 with an average at 0.25 mg/m3 during the 3-hour biology laboratory. The students in TC 2 were exposed to higher concentrations of formaldehyde ranging from 0.26 to 1.2 mg/m3 with an average at 0.632 mg/m3. The results of the survey indicate that the students in both centers were exposed to a notable amount of formaldehyde vapor, at a level that is above the threshold limit value.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Exposure to respirable crystalline silica in eastern North Carolina farm workers.

Occupational exposure to crystalline silica has been linked to silicosis, some forms of cancer, and certain autoimmune diseases. Little information exists on exposure levels of respirable silica in the agricultural industry. This study assessed respirable silica exposure of farm workers in eastern North Carolina. Sandy soils in this region have been shown to contain high levels of respirable silica. Personal breathing zone samples (n = 37) were collected from 27 workers at seven farms during various agricultural activities. The highest respirable silica concentrations were measured during sweet potato transplanting (3.91 +/- 2.07 mg/m3). Respirable silica exposure was observed to be associated with agricultural activity, soil moisture, relative humidity, and wind speed. Most of the variation in exposure (79%) was explained by agricultural activity and soil moisture. The observed percentage of silica levels (mean 34.7%) were almost twice as high as was reported in studies of California agriculture. This may be due to the loamy sand and sandy loam soil types in the regions in this study. In agriculture, respirable silica exposure is highly variable, but the potential for exposures above the threshold limit value of 0.05 mg/m3 exists during particular agricultural activities.

Agricultural Workers' Diseases↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Monitoring of acid-base status of workers at a methyl methacrylate and polymethyl methacrylate production plant in Bulgaria.

This study was carried out on 104 workers at three work operations and a control (nonproduction) area, within a methyl methacrylate (MMA)/polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) production facility in Bulgaria. Airborne monitoring was conducted over a 10-year period for MMA and the reactant chemicals methanol and acetone cyanhydrine at the MMA operation, and MMA was monitored at the PMMA operation. Acid-base status of the workers was evaluated using traditional criteria (pH, pCO(2), pO(2), and HCO(3) in plasma). Data from retrospective monitoring of air levels of the chemicals were compared with the acid-base status of workers at the plant. In some cases air concentrations exceeded the threshold limit value, with the highest percentage of overexposure occurring with airborne MMA in the PMMA production operation. Acid-base disruption indicated by reductions in plasma pH and HCO(3) was found for all groups except the control population. The highest percentage reduction was associated with PMMA production workers. Additionally, respiratory acidosis, indicated by increased pCO(2), was noted in the MMA production and maintenance groups, implying that the response to MMA exposure may involve both the metabolic and respiratory acidosis component. This study was unique in that the combined exposure to MMA and the precursor chemical (methanol) were shown to produce the same effects in workers. It is suggested that when combined exposure occurs, disruption of acid-base status may occur. Enforcement of PPM requirements for coveralls and gloves should prevent skin contamination. Additionally, improvement of equipment in MMA and PMMA production areas is recommended: (1) automation of some manual operations; (2) use of respiratory protection during equipment cleaning; and (3) installation of local ventilation when applicable.

Acid-Base Imbalance↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Silica dust exposures during selected construction activities.

This study characterized exposure for dust-producing construction tasks. Eight common construction tasks were evaluated for quartz and respirable dust exposure by collecting 113 personal task period samples for cleanup; demolition with handheld tools; concrete cutting; concrete mixing; tuck-point grinding; surface grinding; sacking and patching concrete; and concrete floor sanding using both time-integrating filter samples and direct-reading respirable dust monitors. The geometric mean quartz concentration was 0.10 mg/m(3) (geometric standard deviation [GSD]=4.88) for all run time samples, with 71% exceeding the threshold limit value. Activities with the highest exposures were surface grinding, tuck-point grinding, and concrete demolition (GM[GSD] of 0.63[4.12], 0.22[1.94], and 0.10[2.60], respectively). Factors recorded each minute were task, tool, work area, respiratory protection and controls used, estimated cross draft, and whether anyone nearby was making dust. Factors important to exposure included tool used, work area configuration, controls employed, cross draft, and in some cases nearby dust. More protective respirators were employed as quartz concentration increased, although respiratory protection was found to be inadequate for 42% of exposures. Controls were employed for only 12% of samples. Exposures were reduced with three controls: box fan for surface grinding and floor sanding, and vacuum/shroud for surface grinding, with reductions of 57, 50, and 71%, respectively. Exposures were higher for sweeping compound, box fan for cleanup, ducted fan dilution, and wetted substrate. Construction masons and laborers are frequently overexposed to silica. The usual protection method, respirators, was not always adequate, and engineering control use was infrequent and often ineffective.

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗