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PubMed2001

Judgments of grammaticality of Japanese bitransitive sentences with a differing number of arguments.

This study explored the linguistic intuition of Japanese speakers when they judged the grammaticality of isolated simple bitransitive sentences. The role of the number of arguments and the manner of presenting sentences-whether or not the number of arguments increased across judgment trials-in determining the judged grammaticality was examined. Findings showed that the speakers tended to judge even sentences lacking arguments as grammatical. A direct object was most influential in determining judged grammaticality, an indirect object next most influential, and a subject least influential. The manner of presenting sentences had an almost negligible effect. The findings suggest that speakers' judgments of sentences are graded as contrasted to linguists' judgments. Osgood's Naturalness Principle of 1980 was interpreted as providing a good explanation for the findings.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Modeling judgments of linear extent.

Subjects were asked to make judgments of linear extent, specifically. to assess and reproduce the span between dots, with distances that ranged from 0.5 to 8degrees of visual angle. The errors of judgment were modeled by regressing against linear and Fourier components, yielding a model for each of the 25 subjects who participated in the five experiments and for each session in which the subjects were tested. Most of the models manifested a complex profile of underestimates and overestimates of span as a function of the span being judged. Successive cycles of under- and over-estimation of spans appeared as quasiperiodic oscillations in. some of the models. We hypothesize that spatial position is encoded by neuron receptive fields that are organized as a mosaic, and these judgment errors may reflect defects in or competitive interaction among these receptive fields.

Humans↗
PubMed2002

Judgments about length, weight, and width covariation as a function of intelligence and depth of processing in elementary school children: a preliminary study.

28 elementary school students were assessed for intelligence, then blindfolded and asked to explore objects manually before rendering judgments about how weight and width were related to length. Exploration time for each object was hypothesized to reflect the level of processing engaged in by the participants. It was also predicted that more intelligent children would produce the most accurate judgments. Inconsistent with the predictions, analysis indicated that children of higher intelligence did not produce the most accurate judgments. However, longer exploration times reflected a tendency to refrain from endorsing a negative correlation between length and width. Depth of processing is, therefore, presumed to aid in reasoning about covariation.

Child↗
PubMed2006

The moral judgment test: comments on Villegas de Posada's critique.

The Moral Judgment Test is an operationalization of Kohlberg's notion of moral judgment competence and Piaget's two-aspect model of behavior and thus differs from tests of preferred moral orientations and Kohlberg's own Stage measurement. As this best presents counter-arguments to be rated in regard to their moral quality, it is a difficult task for many, and the C score reflects the respondents' competence to cope with the task. Validation studies of 27 language versions and thirty years of use in research and evaluation studies have indicated the Moral Judgment Test is valid and useful for assessing affective and cognitive aspects of moral behavior for research and evaluation.

Humans↗
PubMed2006

Thinking about memories for everyday and shocking events: do people use ease-of-retrieval cues in memory judgments?

Extant research shows that people use retrieval ease, a feeling-based cue, to judge how well they remember life periods. Extending this approach, we investigated the role of retrieval ease in memory judgments for single events. In Experiment 1, participants who were asked to recall many memories of an everyday event (New Year's Eve) rated retrieval as more difficult and judged their memory as worse than did participants asked to recall only a few memories. In Experiment 2, this ease-of-retrieval effect was found to interact with the shocking character of the remembered event: There was no effect when the event was highly shocking (i.e., learning about the attacks of September 11, 2001), whereas an effect was found when the event was experienced as less shocking (due either to increased distance to "9/11" or to the nonshocking nature of the event itself). Memory vividness accounted for additional variance in memory judgments, indicating an independent contribution of content-based cues in judgments of event memories.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Gender bias in fame judgments: implicit gender stereotyping or matching study phase fame?

Familiarized names are falsely judged famous more often than nonfamiliarized names. Banaji and Greenwald (1995) demonstrated a gender bias in this false fame effect, with the effect being larger for male than for female names. This effect was interpreted as reflecting the operation of a gender stereotype. However, the famous male names were, in fact, better known than the famous female names. Thus, the presence of more famous male names during study may have contributed to the observed male-famous association. If so, there should be no gender bias if the studied famous male and female names are equally famous, and a reversed gender bias should emerge if the famous female names are more famous than the male names. In two experiments, these predictions were corroborated. A "classical" gender bias was found only when the famous males were more famous than the famous females. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the gender bias in fame judgments, rather than showing implicit gender stereotyping in the sense of a transsituational judgment bias, reflects the fact that, in test, participants select a proportion of fame judgments to male and female names so that it matches the relative degree of fame of male and female names encountered during study.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Effect of theory-based feature correlations on typicality judgments.

In the present study, we examine what types of feature correlations are salient in our conceptual representations. It was hypothesized that of all possible feature pairs, those that are explicitly recognized as correlated (i.e., explicit pairs) and affect typicality judgments are the ones that are more likely theory based than are those that are not explicitly recognized (i.e., implicit pairs). Real-world categories and their properties, taken from Malt and Smith (1984), were examined. We found that explicit pairs had a greater number of asymmetric dependency relations (i.e., one feature depends on the other feature, but not vice versa) and stronger dependency relations than did implicit pairs, which were statistically correlated in the environment but were not recognized as such. In addition, people more often provided specific relation labels for explicit pairs than for implicit pairs; these labels were most often causal relations. Finally, typicality judgments were more affected when explicit correlations were broken than when implicit correlations were broken. It is concluded that in natural categories, feature correlations that are explicitly represented and affect typicality judgments are the ones about which people have theories.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Masked priming of number judgments depends on prime validity and task.

The influence of brief masked primes (42 or 50 msec) on number target judgments is shown to be highly sensitive to the list-wide validity of the primes for performing a particular target task. Odd/even judgments were facilitated on parity-valid trials (e.g., 1-7) relative to parity-invalid trials (e.g., 6-7), especially when .8 rather than .2 of the trials were parity valid. The opposite pattern was observed with magnitude judgments relative to 5: Responses were facilitated on magnitude- valid trials (e.g., 6-7) relative to magnitude-invalid trials (e.g., 1-7), especially when .8 of the trials were magnitude valid. These results are consistent with Bodner and Masson's (2001) claim that a processing episode constructed during a masked prime event is more likely to be recruited when there is a high probability that it will facilitate responding to the target.

Humans↗
PubMed2005

Recognition memory and introspective remember/know judgments: evidence for the influence of distractor plausibility on "remembering" and a caution about purportedly nonparametric measures.

One popular technique in the study of human recognition memory involves the elicitation of remember and know judgments and the attribution of those judgments to qualitative states of memory retrieval. An alternative view, reviewed here, implicates quantitative, but not qualitative, differences in evidence as the basis for those two judgments. That theory makes two clear and testable predictions: that of criterion shifts in "remembering" and that of isodiscriminability across different response sets. In this experiment, the makeup of the distractor set in a recognition test is shown to influence overall recognition criterion and also rates of "remember" responses. The second portion of the article demonstrates how A' is a poor choice of a measure to test the prediction of isodiscriminability. When this measure is corrected (Equation 7) to make it more consistent with current knowledge about the receiver-operating characteristic in recognition memory, it reveals that there is no difference in discriminability between "remember" and all positive responses.

Cognition↗
PubMed2003

Judgments of recency and their relation to recognition memory.

Subjects went through a list of 550 high- and low-frequency words (Experiment 1) or concrete and abstract words (Experiment 2) in which individual items were repeated at lags of 5 to 30 other items. They made old versus new recognition decisions on each word and followed each "old" response with a numerical judgment of recency (JOR). Recognition judgments displayed the mirror effect. Conditionalized on recognition, JORs were shorter for low-frequency words than for high-frequency words, and shorter for concrete words than for abstract words. This was true at every lag, suggesting that recognition and JOR may have a common basis. However, recognition confidence ratings obtained in Experiment 3 proved much less sensitive than JOR to test lag. Memory models applicable to multiple judgment tasks will be needed to account for such findings.

Humans↗
PubMed2002

The effect of testing procedure on remember-know judgments.

Remember-know (R-K) judgments are commonly used to assess conscious recollection of the study episode during recognition. We varied whether participants judged items as R, K, or new (one-step) or first made an old-new judgment and then made the R-K judgment (two-step). The one-step group had a higher R hit rate and K false alarm rate than did the two-step group. In addition, the K responses of the one-step group did not reliably discriminate between old and new items. When a "guess" response category was available, both groups were able to discriminate old and new items using the K response; however, K responses remained more accurate in the two-step condition. R responses appeared to be relatively immune to the effects of testing procedure when the guess category was provided. This suggests that, under some conditions, the R label can reliably indicate a distinct form of recognition memory, suggesting that allowing participants to use a guess response may help them to confine their R-Kjudgments to confidently recognized items. When participants are not given the option of making a guess response, they may use the R-K distinction to indicate the trace strength of the memory.

Cognition↗
PubMed2005

Response speeding mediates the contributions of cue familiarity and target retrievability to metamnemonic judgments.

Metamnemonic judgments are influenced by the retrievability of the target memory in question, but also by the familiarity of the cue used to elicit such judgments. However, there have been few suggestions as to what factors mediate the influence of these different sources of information on metamnemonic judgments. In this experiment, I examined the interactions between prediction time pressure and variables that promote either cue familiarity or target retrievability. The data reveal that target retrievability plays a larger role than does cue familiarity in fostering predictions of future recall made under unpressured conditions, but that cue familiarity influences predictions that are speeded. This pattern is interpreted by analogy with recognition memory: Mnemonic evidence based on familiarity is more impervious to the demands of time pressure than are the products of deliberative retrieval. Several explanations for this effect are suggested.

Cues↗
PubMed1999

Justification effects on the judgment of analogy.

Many of us share a strong intuition that justification forces us to better understand the situations we face. And there is substantial evidence indicating that this is often the case. However, there is a growing body of research showing that, under certain circumstances, explanation and justification can impair performance on a variety of cognitive tasks. In the present research, the effects of justification on judgment of the soundness of analogies were examined. Subjects judged the quality of the match between pairs of stories with varying degrees of superficial and analogical similarity. Experimental subjects either provided reasons for their judgments or wrote recollections of the target stimuli. These subjects rated the match between stimulus pairs as more sound than did control subjects. Also, providing reasons led to poorer discrimination between superficially similar aspects of the stimuli and analogous aspects. Explanations of these findings are proposed, and implications for problem solving and confidence judgment are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Similarity, global matching, and judgments of frequency.

In the test-pair similarity effect, forced-choice recognition is more accurate for similar test pairs, such as leopard-cheetah, than it is for unrelated test pairs, such as leopard-turnip. According to global matching models, this occurs because the retrieved familiarities of similar items are correlated. In the Minerva 2 model, global matching underlies frequency judgments as well as recognition memory. One implication of this model is that judged frequencies of similar items should be correlated. Another implication is that judgments of summed frequency for pairs of words (how many presentations were there of word1 and word2 combined?) should have higher variance when word1 and word2 are similar than when they are unrelated. These predictions were tested and confirmed in two experiments. A review of these and other results suggests that theories of recognition memory should also be applicable to frequency-judgment tasks.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Tests of the separate retrieval of item and associative information using a frequency-judgment task.

The degree to which item and associative information can be distinguished at retrieval was assessed using a frequency-judgment task. Words were shown various numbers of times individually and as members of word pairs. At test, subjects judged the frequency of the word pairs and a word's frequency as an individual item, its frequency as a member of word pairs, or the combined frequency of the word. Subjects made all of these judgments with considerable accuracy. The frequency of presentations in the nontarget format had consistent, but small, effects on the judgments for the target frequencies. The results provide further support for the distinction between item and associative information and for the source-monitoring framework of Johnson, Hashtroudi, and Lindsay (1993), and they have important implications for global matching models of memory.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1999

Memory for psychophysical scaling judgments.

In three experiments, we examined memory for responses and stimuli experienced in a single direct psychophysical scaling session in which subjects made absolute magnitude estimations of the loudnesses of pure tones. Recall of scaling responses was found to be accurate for the softest and loudest stimuli, but systematically greater than actual judgments for the intermediate stimulus amplitudes, yielding distorted psychophysical functions for the recall data which nonetheless had the same power function exponent as that for the judged stimuli. Also, memory for the range of stimulus amplitudes was fairly accurate, but subjects could not distinguish between judged and nonjudged amplitudes within that range. The results are consistent with the role of extreme stimuli as anchors for judgment, and indicate that memories for these stimuli and responses made to them can be expected to influence future scaling judgments. These results also are consistent with the uncertainty hypothesis of mnemophysics.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1993

Occlusion cues contribute to orientation judgments of occlusion-defined contours.

Occlusion cues defining a contour in a 2-D stimulus pattern were shown to contribute to the accuracy of orientation judgments of that contour. The stimulus pattern was altered so that the occlusion cues became ambiguous, by introducing a textured background suggesting transparency of the stimulus pattern. Orientation judgments then became significantly less accurate. This finding shows that occlusion cues in 2-D patterns can be behaviorally relevant, in addition to generating the subjective percept commonly known as an illusory contour. The disruptive effect of the textured background on orientation judgments remained when no texture elements were present in the vicinity of the contour. This suggests that the generation of occlusion-defined contours relies as much on an evaluation of the surfaces at either side of the contour as being opaque as it does on local encoding of occlusion cues close to the contour. Finally, orientation sensitivity measured with contours defined by other than occlusion cues was not altered after the introduction of a textured background.

Female↗