Search PubMed⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search PubMed

Results for “Income”

Search indexed PubMed citations on genomics, clinical trials, systematic reviews and public health. Explore titles, authors and supplied subject terms, then open the PubMed record.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 559 records · Page 31Linked to original sources
PubMed2000

Household income losses associated with ischaemic heart disease for US employees.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the cost of lost work days due to ischaemic heart disease (IHD), and the cost of this reduced productivity using reduction in household income. DESIGN AND SETTING: Using 2 years of nationally representative observational data, this study examined the effect on household income of IHD. This effect was estimated after accounting for unemployment, days lost to illness and other effects of illness on the income of workers aged 18 to 64 years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES AND RESULTS: Previous measures of indirect costs of disease have typically not included the loss in productivity due to suboptimal work performance. Among workers in this age group, IHD was associated with a reduction of $US3013 in annual household income; this reduction was independent of occupational class, age, size of household and educational level. Such a reduction may be because of reduced on-the-job performance, employer perception of this, or unrelated lifestyle choices. It represents an estimated $US6.05 billion annual loss in productivity in 1992 dollars (or $US6.45 billion in 1996 dollars). CONCLUSIONS: Estimates of the indirect costs of chronic disease that do not account fully for the lost income of employees may significantly underestimate the benefits to employers and society of treatment and prevention.

Cost of Illness↗
PubMed1996

Income dynamics and health.

The focus of this article is the economic dimension of socioeconomic status as it relates to health. In contrast to the assumptions of many life cycle models, the author finds household income to be quite volatile for many families, even during periods of macroeconomic growth. Income inequality has increased dramatically in the last 20 years. Studies relating various measures of health (e.g., low birth weight; cognitive development, stunting, wasting in early childhood; mortality in later adult years) to longitudinal measures of family income often find quite powerful effects of income, even after controlling for correlated aspects of socioeconomic status and baseline health status. The author discusses strategies for modeling income effects.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

"Social capital," GNP per capita, relative income, and health: an ecological study of 23 countries.

The effects of social capital, income inequality, and absolute per capita income were investigated in an ecological analysis of 23 rich and poor countries. Trust was chosen as an indicator of social capital, and GNP (gross national product) per capita and Gini index measured absolute and relative income, respectively. These independent variables were analyzed in a linear regression model with the dependent variables adult mortality rate (25-64 years), life expectancy, and infant mortality rate (IMR). Separate analyses were performed for poor and rich countries as well as all countries combined. Social capital (trust) showed no significant association with the three health outcomes. A particularly strong relationship was found between Gini index and IMR for rich countries, and GNP per capita and life expectancy for all countries. In the group of poor countries, GNP per capita and Gini index in the same model were associated with IMR. The results contradict the suggested impact of social capital on health, and instead support the notion that economic factors such as absolute income and relative income distribution are of importance.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Household income is associated with the risk of metabolic syndrome in a sex-specific manner.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationship between household income and metabolic syndrome in men and women. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 1,695 men and 1,664 women, aged 35-64 years, from three distinct geographical areas of France were investigated. Waist girth, plasma triglycerides, HDL cholesterol, glucose, and systolic blood pressure were used to define metabolic syndrome according to the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP)/Adult Treatment Panel III (ATPIII) guidelines. Household income, educational level, occupational category, working status, consumption of psychotropic drugs, accommodation status, household composition, physical activity at work and during leisure time, alcohol consumption, and smoking habits were recorded with a standardized questionnaire. RESULTS: There were 390 (23.0%) men and 381 (16.9%) women who satisfied NCEP/ATPIII criteria for metabolic syndrome. Household income (P < 0.0001) and consumption of psychotropic drugs (P = 0.0005) were associated with metabolic syndrome in women but not in men. In contrast, educational level, occupational category, working status, and accommodation status were associated with metabolic syndrome in both men and women. After adjustment on lifestyle variables, household income (interaction P < 0.004) remained inversely associated with metabolic syndrome in women but not in men. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that limited household income, which reflects a complex unfavorable social and economic environment, may increase the risk of metabolic syndrome in a sex-specific manner.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Evaluating sire selection practices using lifetime net income functions.

Dairy farmers do not take full advantage of opportunities available for genetic improvement through use of artificial insemination, perhaps because economic advantages of good sire selection may not be fully recognized or understood. This study was undertaken to document differences between use of AI and non-AI bulls and to develop prediction equations to compare lifetime economic merit of future progeny from alternative sire selection policies. We describe the use of two methods of measuring lifetime economic merit, with and without adjustment for opportunity cost of a postponed replacement. Comparison of lifetime relative net income adjusted for opportunity cost on groups of cows sired by different kinds of bulls showed that daughters of proven AI bulls generated $148 and $120 more lifetime net income under fluid and manufactured milk market conditions than daughters of non-AI bulls. Daughters of proven AI bulls produced $60 more than daughters of AI young sires in progeny testing programs at the time of daughter conception. We developed prediction equations from combinations of genetic evaluations for production, productive life, SCS, and linear type traits on sires to predict lifetime relative net income of progeny produced from alternative sire selection strategies. Prediction equations explained 14 to 18% of variation in relative net income (not adjusted for opportunity cost), but herd and year of first freshening accounted for considerably more variation than did genetic evaluations on the sire of the cow. Finally, two independent data sets were used to develop and test predictions of lifetime relative net income adjusted for opportunity cost using genetic evaluations based on the eight traits included in the Merit indexes for the sire of each cow. Prediction equations from odd numbered herds were used to predict lifetime economic merit in even numbered herds and vice versa. Coefficients of determination ranged from 0.088 to 0.103 and averaged 0.004 higher than prediction equations with Net or Fluid Merit. Accuracy of predictions showed that Net and Fluid Merit were robust and useful indexes that accurately identified bulls whose daughters generated highest lifetime economic merit.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Feeding practices and income over feed cost on pasture-oriented dairy farms in Louisiana.

Monthly summary reports (n = 15,568) of Holstein herds enrolled in the Louisiana DHIA program from February 1984 through April 1990 were analyzed using multiple regression techniques to determine the relationships between feeding practices and income over feed cost on predominantly pasture-oriented dairy farms. Income over feed cost increased as silage and pasture quality score increased and decreased as hay and concentrate increased. Milk yield increased as silage and concentrate increased. Increased hay was associated with lower milk yield, but the overall difference was small. Comparison of feeding practices overall with the top 10% of herds based on income over feed cost indicated that most dairy farmers were not adjusting amount of concentrate to nutritional needs. Additional silage fed during late summer and fall, when permanent pastures were at lowest quality and winter pastures were not productive, improved income over feed cost and herd reproductive performance. Better utilization of concentrate by adjustment of amounts fed for milk yield, stage of lactation, and forage component of ration would increase milk yield and income over feed cost. Increased utilization of silage is suggested for better financial and productive performance of the pasture-oriented dairy farms studied.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1988

Physician incomes and work patterns across specialties: 1975 and 1983-84.

Survey data on physician income and work patterns are examined and compared for 1975 and 1983-84. Specialty, hours and weeks worked, location, practice size, and incorporation status are examined. Dollar figures for 1975 are adjusted to show real-dollar income changes over the period. Incomes for surgical specialties were highest. In real-dollar terms, nonsurgical specialties exhibited sluggish growth or even fell. Urban-rural differences in real income and hours worked narrowed over time. Incorporation and group affiliation were positively related to income levels in both surveys, but number of hours worked was not. Limitations and interpretation of these data are discussed last.

Data Collection↗
PubMed1975

Puzzles and further explorations in the interrelationships of successive births with husband's income, spouses' education and race.

When fertility is examined in the detail of individual parity progressions and birth-order transitions, important interactions between the effects of income and education are seen. Among the findings are: the negative effect of education on fertility is stronger at all parities for less educated compared to more highly educated women. Additional income has a more positive effect for more highly educated than for less educated women. For women with 0-8 years of education the effect of more income is positive when the family has no children but negative thereafter, but for college-educated women the effect of more income is positive. And additional income has a less positive (more negative) effect on fertility among nonwhites than among whites.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

[Analysis--of family-planning in urban low-income brackets based on Daejon and Daegu Cities].

Since the inception of the national family planning program in 1962, the main emphasis has been placed on the provision of contraceptive services and information, education, and communication (IEC) activities through home visits by family planning field workers and through government designated private physicians. This approach has been a powerful management system for the national program, particularly in the rural area. However, new issues in the national family planning program emerged with the subsequent socioeconomic changes since 1962. An increasing number of the rural population began to migrate to the urban area, and, therefore, beginning in the 1970s, more weight had to be given to the family planning service for the urban area; in particular, for those in the low-income brackets. In an effort to increase contraceptive acceptors among the urban low-income people, the government has implemented various special projects for them since 1974, through maximum utilization of community leaders including Tong and Ban Chiefs and mothers' clubs, and family planning workers in their areas. Thus, this paper analyzes the current status of family planning and fertility behavior of urban low-income wives as a part of program evaluation. Also, this paper is based on an analysis of the 1984 Family Planning Survey data, which was conducted in July 1984 and responded to by 600 married women aged 15-44 in the low-income areas of the Daejon and Daegu cities. The survey data revealed that the contraceptive practice rate was 77.0%, which was much higher than 70.3% of the national practice rate in the same year, and the approval rate for the 1 or 2 children of the low-income areas was much higher than that of other urban areas. Based on the results of the analysis, the following recommendations are suggested for the better program implementation: 1) improvement of program management system for recruiting new acceptors in their 20s for birth spacing; 2) development and inducement of innovative incentive schemes and IEC activities for increasing the proportion of the 1 child families; and 3) strengthening the utilization of community resources including mothers' clubs.

Asia↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Income growth and future poverty rates of the aged.

This article estimates the effects of 50 years of steady growth in incomes on poverty rates among the elderly. It assumes that the poverty threshold continues to be adjusted for inflation but not for increases in real incomes. Simulations with the March 1998 Current Population Survey indicate that if the benefit rules for Social Security and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) are not changed and if earnings and other sources of income in an otherwise unchanging population grow by 1 percent per year (the intermediate assumption about earnings growth used in the Social Security Trustees' Report), poverty among the elderly will decrease from 10.5 percent in 1997 to about 7.2 percent in 2020 and to 4.1 percent in 2047. These projected poverty rates are quite sensitive to both the assumption about earnings growth and the assumption that benefits are not further reduced to maintain solvency. This article quantifies the sensitivity of the results to these assumptions and discusses several other aspects that might affect future poverty rates--changes in other income components like SSI, earnings, and pensions; changes in longevity and marital patterns; and changes in the distribution of earnings.

Aged↗
PubMed2003

Behind the times: physician income, 1995-99.

This Data Bulletin is based on physicians' reports of net income from the practice of medicine from the HSC Community Tracking Study Physician Survey in 1996-97, 1998-99 and 2000-01. Net income equals income from the practice of medicine after expenses and before taxes. Reported income is lagged--for example, in the 2000-01 survey, physicians provide 1999 net income. Adjustments for inflation use the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) online inflation calculator.

Forecasting↗
PubMed2003

National Academy of Neuropsychology/Division 40 of the American Psychological Association Practice Survey of Clinical Neuropsychology in the United States. Part II: Reimbursement experiences, practice economics, billing practices, and incomes.

Leaders of the National Academy of Neuropsychology and Division 40 (Clinical Neuropsychology) of the American Psychological Association determined that current information on the professional practice of clinical neuropsychology within the United States was needed. These two organizations co-sponsored a national survey of U.S. clinical neuropsychologists that was conducted in September 2000. The primary goal of the survey was to gather information on such topics as: practitioner and practice characteristics, economic variables (e.g., experience with major third party payors, such as Medicare and managed care), practice expenses, billing methods, experiences with Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) codes, time spent on various clinical tasks, use of assistants, and income. In this second of two articles describing the survey results, reimbursement experiences, practice economics, billing practices, and incomes are highlighted. Survey results indicate that neuropsychologists frequently have difficulty gaining access to membership on managed care panels. For those who gain access, managed care companies often limit provision of services; this is quite often perceived as negatively affecting quality of patient care. It is very common for neuropsychologists to feel obligated to provide more services to managed care and Medicare patients than are allowed to be billed to the insurance carrier; these hours are typically "written off." Numerous CPT codes are used to bill the same clinical service. Awareness of Medicare practice and billing expectations is variable among practitioners, as is awareness of public aid/Medicaid billing status. Professional income is influenced by years of licensed practice, practice setting, gender, types and amounts of non-clinical professional activities, and types and amounts of reimbursement sources within one's clinical practice. Income of neuropsychologists has only a minimal relationship to percentage of clinical practice per week. Within the context of prior surveys, neuropsychologists are engaging in more clinical hours per week and, nevertheless, compared to data from 1993, are reporting decreased income. These and other findings are presented and discussed.

Academies and Institutes↗
PubMed2004

Influence of education and income on atherogenic risk factor profiles among patients hospitalized with acute myocardial infarction.

BACKGROUND: Survival after acute myocardial infarction (AMI) varies with socioeconomic status. It is unknown whether these differences can be attributed, in part, to variations in the prevalence of atherogenic risk factors preceding the index AMI event. OBJECTIVES: To examine how cardiovascular risk factors varied according to person-level indicators of income and education among a cohort of younger patients (younger than 65 years of age) hospitalized with AMI in Ontario. METHODS: The Socio-Economic and Acute Myocardial Infarction study (SESAMI) prospectively assembled a cohort of 3335 patients hospitalized with AMI who consented to participate (75% consent rate) from 53 of 57 large-volume institutions (100 AMI cases per year or more) throughout Ontario between December 1, 1999, and June 1, 2002. Given the known challenges inherent in characterizing the socioeconomic status in elderly patients and the ubiquity of atherosclerosis in elderly persons, the study focused on 1635 nonelderly participants. The relationship between income or education and cardiovascular risk factors, after adjustment for age, sex, ethnoracial factors and geography (urban-rural status) was examined. RESULTS: The prevalence of diabetes, hypertension, smoking and pre-existing heart disease was higher among poorer, less educated patients, as were the total number of cardiovascular risk factors. After adjusting for baseline factors, both income (adjusted OR 0.50, 95% CI 0.31 to 0.82, P=0.006) and education (adjusted OR 0.52, 95% CI 0.31 to 0.87, P=0.01) were independently associated with cardiovascular risk factors or pre-existing heart disease. There were no significant interactions between income, education and baseline cardiovascular risk. CONCLUSIONS: Outcome differences across socioeconomic strata following AMI may reflect major income- and education-related differences in atherogenic risk profile.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Effect of family size and income on the biochemical indices of urban school children of Bangladesh.

The relationship between family size and income and the biochemical indices of 242 children (aged from 5 to 12 years) from five schools in Dhaka City, Bangladesh, was investigated. Socio-economic data were collected by questionnaire and blood samples were drawn by visiting each school on a prefixed date. Mean levels of all measures, except for serum zinc, fell within the normal range. Older boys, but not girls (10-12 years of age) had statistically significantly higher haemoglobin, serum protein and serum vitamin A levels compared with those of the younger boys (5-9 years of age). The children were divided into three family size groups (small, up to 4 members; medium, 5-7 members; and large, 8 or more) to investigate the effect of family size on the biochemical data. The children from smaller families showed significantly higher levels of haemoglobin and serum vitamin A compared with the children from large families. For serum protein, copper and zinc, there was no statistically significant difference between the children of different family size groups. To analyse the effect of family income, children were divided into three income groups (low, up to taka 2000; medium, taka 2001-4500; and high, 4501 or more). The children from the low family income group had significantly lower serum protein (7.5 g/100 ml) and haemoglobin (13.4 g/100 ml) levels compared with those of the children from the high family income group (for protein, 7.7 g/100 ml and haemoglobin, 14.1 g/100 ml).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2006

Association of income and prescription drug coverage with generic medication use among older adults with hypertension.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether low-income seniors and those without prescription drug coverage are more likely to use generic cardiovascular drugs than more affluent and better insured adults. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional analysis. METHODS: We used data from the 2001 Medicare Current Beneficiary Survey. Analyses included noninstitutionalized survey respondents over age 65 years with hypertension who used > or =1 multisource cardiovascular drugs (N = 1710). We examined the association of income and prescription coverage with use of generic versions of multisource drugs from 5 classes: angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, beta-adrenergic receptor antagonists (beta-blockers), calcium channel blockers, alpha1-adrenergic receptor antagonists (alpha-blockers), and thiazide diuretics. RESULTS: Rates of generic medication use were 88.5% (beta-blockers); 92.8% (thiazides); 58.7% (calcium channel blockers); 60.7% (ACE inhibitors); and 52.6% (alpha-blockers). In multivariate analysis of generic medication use aggregated across the 5 drug classes, individuals with incomes below 200% of the federal poverty level were modestly more likely to use generic medications compared with seniors with incomes above 300% of the poverty level. Seniors who lacked prescription coverage were more likely to use generics than those who had employer-sponsored coverage, although the association was of marginal statistical significance (relative risk = 1.29, 95% confidence interval = 1.00, 1.60). CONCLUSION: Seniors with low incomes or no prescription coverage were only somewhat more likely to use generic cardiovascular drugs than more affluent and insured seniors. These findings suggest that physicians and policy makers may be missing opportunities to reduce costs for Medicare and its economically disadvantaged beneficiaries.

Aged↗
PubMed1990

[Family income and child malnutrition in the coast of Camaçari, Brazil].

A study on malnutrition prevalence was carried out in a sample of 388 children, aged 0 to 5 years, living in the coast of Camaçari County, State of Bahia, Brazil. Prevalence of malnutrition indicated by low weight-for-age, degrees I, II and III--according to Gómez' criteria--was 62.1%. According to the criteria proposed by Waterlow, prevalence of malnutrition was 64.9%, 26.5% of stunted children, 20.7% of wasted, and 17.7% of stunted plus wasted children. The relationship between income and malnutrition became statistically significant when the per capita family income index was used, instead of the total family income index. Concerning the nature of malnutrition, it was observed that only stunting--in an inversely proportional fashion--was significantly associated with income. Prevalence rates of wasting or wasting plus stunting were not significantly associated with the per capita or with the total family income.

Body Constitution↗
PubMed1990

Income change at retirement.

Less than one-fourth of SIPP retirees made the transition from full-time work and no benefit receipt to benefit receipt and no work during the 32 months of the 1984 SIPP panel, and these full retirees appear to differ economically from those who had not fully retired during the 32 months. Income declined to 60 percent of preretirement levels for those who received Social Security benefits and employer pensions, and to 46 percent for those who received only one type of benefit after ceasing full-time work. Family income cushioned the decline. About one-third of retirees had larger changes in income shortly before or after observed retirement transitions than right at the retirement transitions. Larger changes in income were associated with changing one's work effort. Asset income was quite variable across the entire panel. A monthly view of persons in various stages of retirement has brought into sharper focus than has previously been recognized the many paths into retirement, often over an extended period of time, during which status may change back and forth. A one-time or occasional extension of the SIPP to perhaps a 5-year period for the near-retirement-age population would increase the proportion of retirees for whom the full process is observed in such great detail. Alternatively, information on the timing of changes in labor-force and pension status may be collected in a proposed new Retirement History Study that calls for interviewing persons at 2-year intervals over a 10-year period for a more accurate picture of the retirement process.

Aged↗
PubMed1989

A test of the Easterlin fertility model using income for two generations and a comparison with the Becker model.

An important dimension of Easterlin's seminal work on fertility is the hypothesis of intergenerational taste formation, or the relative income hypothesis. Previous estimates have not had data on income in two generations, so the estimated own-income effects may have had a downward bias. This article uses data with income from two generations to estimate the Easterlin model directly. Own income is still not positively significant. A simple single-equation test is developed to distinguish this model from a Becker intergenerational serially correlated endowments model that he claims is observationally equivalent. The test results favor the Becker formulation.

Female↗