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PubMed1992

Hypnotic susceptibility, cognitive dissociation, and runner's high in a sample of marathon runners.

I studied the hypnotic ability of marathon runners as it relates to cognitive dissociation while running and to runner's high. Dissociating runners use a cognitive style in which they cut themselves off from the sensory feedback they would normally receive from their body. Marathon runners demonstrated high hypnotic susceptibility scores. Additionally, use of dissociation as a running strategy during the marathon was positively related to susceptibility, and runners who dissociated in training had higher susceptibility scores than did other runners. Runner's high was not related to hypnotic susceptibility; however, it was positively related to dissociation. The most common description of runner's high was general relaxation, whereas the least used description was total euphoria. Surprisingly some runners defined runner's high in ambivalent or negative terms. These results were related to the processes of self-hypnosis and to the positive mental health benefits of running.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

The hidden observer, hypnotic dreams, and age regression: clinical implications.

This article summarizes data from three studies (Maré, Lynn, Kvaal, Segal, & Sivec, in press; Lynn, Maré, Kvaal, Segal, & Sivec, 1993) designed to extend research on the "hidden observer" to two phenomena of clinical relevance: hypnotic dreams and suggested age regression. Subjects received suggestions for a hypnotic dream or age regression and then received suggestions for a "hidden observer" (i.e., the subject possesses a part of the self that is aware of images and ideas that the conscious mind is unaware of) with respect to the dream or age-regression experience. Hidden reports contained more personally relevant information than the target suggestions (i.e., dream, age regression). Subjectives were also less likely to recall hidden reports. The high rate of hidden-observer responding (> 80%) was also evident in nonhypnotized simulating and relaxed subjects, although they did not exhibit as much primary process thinking in their dream reports as hypnotized subjects. Case studies of a trauma client and a forensic client are used to illustrate the clinical potential of hidden-observer suggestions.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Identifying hypnotic sequelae: the problem of attribution.

A case of apparent hypnotic sequelae occurring in a non-clinical research context (involving a college student) is reported. Following his participation in a group session in which a standard hypnotic susceptibility scale was administered, 19 year-old Michael reported a number of reactions common to the hypnotic sequelae literature including dizziness, a mild headache, trembling, and slight nausea. An interview with Michael revealed several alternative sources of his reaction, highlighting the ever-present problem of attribution.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Binaural-beat induced theta EEG activity and hypnotic susceptibility.

Six participants varying in degree of hypnotizability (2 lows, 2 mediums, and 2 highs) were exposed to 3 20-minute sessions of a binaural-beat sound stimulation protocol designed to enhance theta brainwave activity. The Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (SHSS:C) was used for pre- and post-stimulus measures of hypnotic susceptibility. A time-series analysis was utilized to evaluate anterior theta activity in response to binaural-beat sound stimulation over baseline and stimulus sessions. The protocol designed to increase anterior theta activity resulted in a significant increase in percent theta for 5 of 6 participants. Hypnotic susceptibility levels remained stable in the high-susceptible group and increased significantly in the low and medium-susceptible groups.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed2003

Hypnotic susceptibility as a predictor of participation in student activities.

In this study, Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility: Form A scores for 458 college students were compared with college yearbook records of their participation in student activities. Students who scored low in susceptibility showed significantly less participation in activities than others who were either moderate or high in susceptibility. Overall, females showed higher levels of participation than males, but there was no significant interaction between gender and hypnotic susceptibility. Spectral analysis showed participation scores to be somewhat more strongly related to easier HGSHS:A items than to more difficult items in the manner predicted by two-factor theory. Closer examination of the results revealed that this effect was primarily due to the fact that low susceptible subjects participated significantly less in student activities than subjects who were either moderate or high in hypnotic susceptibility. The results suggest that future research should further examine the unique contribution of low susceptibility subjects to hypnosis theory and research.

Female↗
PubMed2006

Hypnotically enhanced dreaming to achieve symptom reduction: a case study of 11 children and adolescents.

Theories about dreams have shaped our thinking about mind-body unity and the influence of thought on the body. In this article, the authors review the sparse literature regarding the use of hypnosis with children's dreams and nightmares, summarize how hypnotically induced dreams have been used to resolve psychological symptoms, and note five themes in the literature worthy of further investigation. Building on the value of both dreams and hypnosis for working through conflicts, the authors united mind-body medicine and hypnotically induced dreaming in a pediatric pulmonary practice. A case series is presented of 11 patients who were offered an opportunity to review their reported nightmares through hypnosis in order to uncover their potential meaning. The recurrent nightmares among these patients decreased greatly in frequency or resolved following the hypnosis enhanced dream review. Thus, we demonstrate that hypnotically induced dream review may be useful in a pediatric population.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Mind styles and the hypnotic induction profile: measure and match to enhance medical treatment.

Modern medical technology and economic impositions tend to dehumanize the medical patient. This paper describes a targeted use of the hypnotic modality for relationship building, symptom management, and restoring a sense of self to the patient. To humanize medical care one patient at a time, examples are given for the use of the Hypnotic Induction Profile, the Eye Roll sign and AOD (Apollonian-Odyssean-Dionysian) Mind-Style Questionnaire as a basis for choosing bio-psycho-social treatment strategies. This trio of assessments can be used together, in approximately 10 to 15 minutes, or separately, if treatment decisions need to be made in a few minutes or less. The hypothesis presented is that matching treatment strategies, with or without formal hypnosis, to hypnotic capacity and mind style can increase respectful care and efficacy of treatment outcome. Clinical examples will illustrate this approach to enhance recovery, morale, and maximize patients' ability to become active partners on their own behalf.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Specific autobiographical memory following hypnotically induced mood state.

This study investigated the impact of hypnotically induced mood on the specificity of autobiographical memory. High (n = 24) and low (n = 21) hypnotizable participants were administered a hypnotic induction for sad, neutral, or happy mood and were asked to retrieve specific autobiographical memories in response to positive and negative cue words. Whereas high hypnotizable participants in the sad condition provided fewer specific memories in response to positive rather than negative cues, those in the neutral and happy conditions responded similarly to positive and negative cues. Findings suggest that impaired recall of specific memories may be mediated by state factors associated with sad mood. These results point to the utility of hypnotic mood induction as a means to experimentally investigate the relationship between mood and autobiographical memory.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Hypnotically induced emotional numbing.

This study investigated the utility of a hypnotic suggestion to inhibit emotional response. High and low hypnotizable participants (N = 53) were administered a hypnotic induction, and half the participants were then administered a suggestion for emotional numbing. Participants were then presented with slides depicting neutral or disfigured faces. Participants who received the emotional numbing suggestion reported less responsivity to the disfigured faces than did those in the control condition, and this pattern was stronger for high than for low hypnotizable participants. Highs in the numbing condition displayed less overall distress in their facial expressions in response to the disfigured slides relative to those in the control condition. These findings suggest that hypnotic emotional numbing may be a useful paradigm in which to explore processes in emotion inhibition.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

The hypnotic dreams of healthy children and children with cancer: a quantitative and qualitative analysis.

In this study, the Stanford Hypnotic Clinical Scale for Children was administered to 52 healthy children and 47 children and adolescents with cancer. Responses to the dream item of this scale were analyzed for the type and detail of imagery. The hypnotizability scores of both groups were similar. However, children with cancer reported more pleasant than unpleasant fantasy in their hypnotic dreams, and their dream reports tended to contain less fantasy and detail overall. Rescoring the dream item based on extent of fantasy and detail resulted in a lower pass rate for that item, especially for children with cancer. Regardless of health status, older children experienced more self-involvement in their hypnotic dreams compared to younger children.

Child↗
PubMed2002

Hypnotic susceptibility scales: are the mean scores increasing?

The Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (SHSS:C), developed and named 37 years ago, is arguably the "gold standard" of hypnotic susceptibility scales. However, it has been the impression of several researchers that means obtained on the SHSS:C are higher now than in previous years. The authors comprehensively review studies using the SHSS:C over a 4-decade period. The findings demonstrate a significant linear trend between year and SHSS:C scores, with higher obtained means in more recent work. The authors also report a similar analysis of research with the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A. Although the mechanisms underlying this trend can only be speculated upon at present, these findings underscore the importance of using local control groups in research on hypnotizability.

Data Interpretation, Statistical↗
PubMed2002

Hypnotic responsivity from a developmental perspective: insights from young children.

Evidence indicates that hypnotic responsivity in children younger than 8 years of age differs significantly from that of older children and adults. The sudden increase in responsiveness around age 8, differing patterns of item difficulty for young children, specific problems with hypnotic dream and age regression items, and the lack of conceptual distinction between volition and nonvolition argue for a fundamental discontinuity between young children and adults regarding responsivity. These differences result from underlying developmental processes that characterize young childhood, including limitations in executive cognitive functioning, more overt forms of involvement, and reliance on authoritative others for direction, regulation, and support. The unique features of young children's hypnotic responsivity offer the opportunity to reconsider hypnosis within a developmental context.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Hypnotic emotional numbing: a study of implicit emotion.

Twenty high hypnotizable and 20 low hypnotizable participants were administered a hypnotic induction and then presented with emotionally distressing and neutral visual images. Half the participants were administered a suggestion for emotional numbing. Participants were then asked to rate the valence of neutral words that were preceded by subliminal presentations of the negative and neutral images. Whereas highs who received the emotional-numbing suggestion reported comparable ratings of the words following presentations of the negative and neutral images, highs in the control condition and lows in both conditions reported more positive ratings of words that were preceded by the negative stimuli. These findings suggest that the subliminally presented negative stimuli led participants to rate the subsequent neutral words more positively. In contrast, hypnotic emotional numbing diminished this pattern in highs. These results are discussed in terms of the influence of hypnotic emotional numbing at a preattentive stage of processing.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Autogenic training and future oriented hypnotic imagery in the treatment of tension headache: outcome and process.

The aim of the present study was (a) to investigate the relative efficacy of autogenic training and future oriented hypnotic imagery in the treatment of tension headache and (b) to explore the extent to which therapy factors such as relaxation, imagery skills, and hypnotizability mediate therapy outcome. Patients were randomly assigned to the 2 therapy conditions and therapists. 55 patients (28 in the autogenic therapy condition and 27 in the future oriented hypnotic imagery condition) completed the 4 therapy sessions and 2 assessment sessions. No significant main effect or interaction effects for treatment condition or therapist was revealed. A significant effect for time in analyzing scores for headache pain, pain medication usage, depression, and state anxiety was found. In the self-hypnosis condition, pain reduction proved to be associated with depth of relaxation during home practice (as assessed with diaries) and capacity to involve in imagery (as assessed with the Dutch version [van der Velden & Spinhoven, 1984] of the Creative Imagination Scale [Barber & Wilson, 1978/79; Wilson & Barber, 1978]). After statistically controlling for relaxation and imagery, hypnotizability scores (as assessed with the Dutch version [Oyen & Spinhoven, 1983] of the Stanford Hypnotic Clinical Scale [Morgan & J.R. Hilgard, 1975, 1978/79]) were significantly correlated with ratings of pain reduction. Results are discussed in the context of the neo-dissociation and social-cognitive model of hypnoanalgesia. The clinical relevance and the methodological shortcomings of the present study are also critically assessed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Hypnotic induction of an epileptic seizure: a brief communication.

This case study investigated the utility of hypnosis to precipitate a seizure in a patient with refractory epilepsy. The patient was twice administered a hypnotic induction and a suggestion to age regress to a day when he was distressed and suffered repeated seizures. The patient did not respond to the first hypnotic suggestion; however, an epileptic seizure was observed in the second hypnotic session. Videorecording and subdural electroencephalograph recording confirmed that he suffered an epileptic seizure. Postexperimental inquiry revealed that the patient used deliberate cognitive strategies to avoid seizure onset in the first session but adopted a more constructive cognitive style in the second session. Findings are discussed in terms of emotions, hypnosis, and cognitive style as mediating factors in the experimental precipitation of epileptic seizures.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Hypnotic susceptibility, imaging ability, and anagram-solving activity.

Anagram-solving activity was examined as a function of hypnotic susceptibility level and imaging ability. In Experiment 1, anagrams that were composed of sets of letters that formed actual words (word anagrams), but when unscrambled formed other words, were compared to sets of letters that formed nonwords (nonsense anagrams). Word anagrams required more time to solve than nonsense anagrams. Also, fewer word anagrams were correctly solved compared to nonsense anagrams. Those individuals judged both high in hypnotic susceptibility and vivid in imaging ability demonstrated the best performance. In Experiment 2, anagrams that when unscrambled formed high-imagery words were compared to those that formed low-imagery words. High-imagery-word anagrams were solved more quickly and correctly than low-imagery-word anagrams. Such activity was best demonstrated by individuals who were judged to be both high in hypnotic susceptibility and vivid in imaging ability. These results are discussed in terms of strategies for solving anagrams and the individual differences that appear to be associated with using such strategies.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Hypnotic susceptibility: a personal and historical note regarding the development and naming of the Stanford Scales.

Certain misleading, if not inaccurate, allegations that have been made regarding the foundations of the Stanford scales are corrected. No special meaning was intended when the scales were designated susceptibility scales. A retrospective examination, however, indicates that grounds existed for making certain differentiations. SHSS:C and RSPS:I and RSPS:II should more appropriately have been designated as suggestibility and depth scales. On the other hand, whereas SHSS:A and SHSS:B also assess depth of hypnosis, they include a feature that permits using the obtained depth as a measure of hypnotic capacity and a predictor of future hypnotic performance. The possibility of using the same measure, suggestibility, to assess hypnotic responsiveness in dissimilar contexts may have been partially responsible for the confusing variety of labels that have been attached to what in the past has appeared to many to be one and the same thing. Further confusion more recently has been introduced by researchers and clinicians who have used the term depth, previously and conventionally attached to assessments based on observed overt responses, in reference to now certain subjectively based assessments.

Humans↗
PubMed1997

Hypnotic control of pain: historical perspectives and future prospects.

Hypnotic analgesia has occupied a pivotal place in experimental and clinical hypnosis. It emerged early in the 19th century when effective clinical techniques for pain management had not yet developed, and the relief of pain and suffering had not even become a well-defined social goal. Its acceptance was further complicated by political struggles surrounding the humanitarian transformation of medicine during this era as well as a redefinition of the physician-patient relationship that wrested control from the patient. The initial struggle for professional acceptance was won only when the debate became almost entirely localized within the professional community. Acceptance of hypnosis by professional organizations has been followed by alternating periods of interest and indifference. While the evidence for the powerful effects of suggestion and related variables has often been observed and reported in nonhypnotic contexts, their relationship to hypnotic phenomena has often not been appreciated. Since the mid-20th century, scientific information about hypnotic analgesia has grown substantially and has had significant influence on strategies for acute and chronic pain management. If recent calls for its wider application in pain management are to succeed, it will require additional data from clinical populations and a balanced and scientifically prudent approach by its advocates.

Forecasting↗