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PubMed1993

[The effect of unsaturated dietary fatty acids on the distribution of cholesterol in individual lipoprotein fractions and on serum lipids of rats].

In six groups of nine young Sprague-Dawley rats each, the coconut fat used in the basal diet (group I) was replaced to 60% by pure oleic acid (group II) or linoleic acid (group III), respectively, by 0.6% of alpha-linolenic acid (IV), eicosatrienoic acid (V) and eicosapentaenoic acid (VI). A 60% replacement of the coconut fat in the basal diet by pure oleic acid, respectively, by 0.6% of eicosapentaenoic acid or eicosatrienoic acid significantly decreased the total cholesterol concentration in serum by 21% (HDL -28%; LDL -15%; VLDL -48%), respectively, 19% (HDL -12%; LDL -42%; VLDL +69%) or 15% (HDL -11%; LDL -21%) and the total free cholesterol concentration by 22% (HDL -27%), respectively, 41% (HDL -31%; LDL -66%) or 23% (HDL -21%; LDL -31%). The substitution of the coconut fat by 60% oleic acid or 0.6% alpha-linoleic acid had no influence on the total and total free cholesterol concentration in serum, though in the LDL-fraction a significant decrease of cholesterol could always be found. The concentrations of free fatty acids in serum were not influenced by the unsaturated dietary fatty acids while the phospholipid concentration was reduced by linoleic acid (-15%) and by eicosapentaenoic acid (-18%). The triglyceride content in serum was decreased by linoleic acid (-29%) and by eicosatrienoic acid (-25%).

Animals↗
PubMed1980

Some metabolic effects of fat infusions in depleted patients.

Severely depleted surgical patients were given total parenteral nutrition, providing an average of 34.6 kcal and 266 mg nitrogen/kg body weight. Two diets were used, one with glucose as sole source of nonprotein energy, the other with a fat emulsion, Liposyn 10%, substituted isocalorically for one-third of the glucose. The two diets were given alternately, for 1 wk at a time, to each patient. N balance, at zero energy balance, was estimated to average 50 mg nitrogen/kg, indicating that energy intake in excess of expenditure is not required to restore lean body mass in depleted patients. Nitrogen (N) balance was equally good with either diet. Respiratory quotients and carbohydrate oxidation were lower, and fat oxidation was higher with the fat-containing diet. Amino acids and glucose were infused continuously over each 24-hr period and fat was given for only 6--8 hr. During the period of fat infusion, fat oxidation was significantly higher, and carbohydrate oxidation and RQ were lower than at other times of day.

Aged↗
PubMed1984

Dietary omega-3 fatty acids prevent carbohydrate-induced hypertriglyceridemia.

Dietary fish oils rich in omega-3 fatty acids are remarkably hypotriglyceridemic in both normal and hypertriglyceridemic subjects. This present study was designed to examine the hypothesis that dietary fish oils could prevent the usual sharp increase in plasma triglyceride and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) levels that occur physiologically after the induction by a high-carbohydrate diet. Seven healthy volunteers consumed three experimental liquid formula diets: the baseline diet (45% fat, 10% protein, 45% carbohydrate) and two high-carbohydrate diets (15% fat, 10% protein, 75% carbohydrate), one as a control diet and the other containing fish oil. The baseline and control dietary fats were a mixture of peanut oil and cocoa butter, whereas the fish oil diet contained high levels of omega-3 fatty acids. The plasma triglyceride levels rose from 105 mg/dL during baseline diet to 194 mg/dL during the high-CHO control diet (P less than 0.005). VLDL triglyceride levels increased from 69 to 156 mg/dL (P less than 0.005) and VLDL cholesterol from 18 to 34 mg/dL (P less than 0.005). When fish oil was substituted for the control fats, plasma triglyceride levels fell from 194 to 75 mg/dL (P less than 0.005), VLDL triglyceride and cholesterol levels were reduced from 156 to 34 mg/dL (P less than 0.005) and from 34 to 12 mg/dL (P less than 0.005), respectively. These effects were noted by two to three days after beginning the fish oil diet. Thus, dietary omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil rapidly and markedly reduced VLDL triglyceride levels even in the face of a high-carbohydrate diet.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Nutrition in lipid disorders.

When various fats and oils are given to humans, marked differences in the concentrations of serum lipids and lipoproteins will be observed. Relative to dietary carbohydrates, lauric, myristic and palmitic acid, which are saturated fatty acids, but also trans fatty acids from hydrogenated fats elevate the serum total and LDL cholesterol level. Saturated fatty acids with less than 12 carbon atoms or with 18 carbon atoms-stearic acid-have little effect on the serum cholesterol level. This is also true for oleic acid, a monounsaturated fatty acid. Replacement of linoleic acid for carbohydrates leads to slightly lower LDL cholesterol levels; however, recent studies suggest that this effect is less than predicted by studies performed in the early sixties. Substitution of carbohydrates by fat will increase the level of HDL cholesterol but decrease that of fasting serum triglyceride. Trans fatty acids, though, are an exception and lower the level of HDL cholesterol relative to other fatty acids. The fish oils may have a small LDL-cholesterol-elevating effect in hypertriglyceridemic patients but have a very specific triglyceride-lowering effect.

Cholesterol↗
PubMed2005

Carbohydrate-restricted diets high in either monounsaturated fat or protein are equally effective at promoting fat loss and improving blood lipids.

BACKGROUND: When substituted for carbohydrate in an energy-reduced diet, dietary protein enhances fat loss in women. It is unknown whether the effect is due to increased protein or reduced carbohydrate. OBJECTIVE: We compared the effects of 2 isocaloric diets that differed in protein and fat content on weight loss, lipids, appetite regulation, and energy expenditure after test meals. DESIGN: This was a parallel, randomized study in which subjects received either a low-fat, high-protein (LF-HP) diet (29 +/- 1% fat, 34 +/- 0.8% protein) or a high-fat, standard-protein (HF-SP) diet (45 +/- 0.6% fat, 18 +/- 0.3% protein) during 12 wk of energy restriction (6 +/- 0.1 MJ/d) and 4 wk of energy balance (7.4 +/- 0.3 MJ/d). Fifty-seven overweight and obese [mean body mass index (in kg/m(2)): 33.8 +/- 0.9] volunteers with insulin concentrations >12 mU/L completed the study. RESULTS: Weight loss (LF-HP group, 9.7 +/- 1.1 kg; HF-SP group, 10.2 +/- 1.4 kg; P = 0.78) and fat loss were not significantly different between diet groups even though the subjects desired less to eat after the LF-HP meal (P = 0.02). The decrease in resting energy expenditure was not significantly different between diet groups (LF-HP, -342 +/- 185 kJ/d; HF-SP, -349 +/- 220 kJ/d). The decrease in the thermic effect of feeding with weight loss was smaller in the LF-HP group than in the HF-SP group (-0.3 +/- 1.0% compared with -3.6 +/- 0.7%; P = 0.014). Glucose and insulin responses to test meals improved after weight loss (P < 0.001) with no significant diet effect. Bone turnover, inflammation, and calcium excretion did not change significantly. CONCLUSION: The magnitude of weight loss and the improvements in insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease risk factors did not differ significantly between the 2 diets, and neither diet had any detrimental effects on bone turnover or renal function.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Fit, fat and fat free: the metabolic aspects of weight control.

This paper examines the role of energy expenditure, especially physical activity related energy expenditure, in the metabolic aspects of body weight regulation. New data have emerged from studies conducted over the last decade, demonstrating that physical activity is a critical factor contributing to successful body weight regulation in lean and obese individuals. A growing number of prospective studies show the protective role of increased physical activity against weight gain over time. Also, individuals who are successful in long-term maintenance of a weight reduction are highly likely to also be physically active. Participation in physical activity is among the best predictors of success in weight maintenance. Physical activity facilitates weight maintenance through direct energy expenditure and improved physical fitness. The latter facilitates the amount and intensity of daily activities. Both components are of importance in relation to energy and substrate balance. Exercise may act as a substitute for an enlarged fat mass, in bringing about rates of fat oxidation commensurate with fat intake. Metabolic effects on lipid mobilization and oxidation and morphological/biochemical changes in the muscle fiber, contribute to this successful regulation of body weight. A limited number of studies indicate that, the minimal level of additional energy expenditure by physical exercise required for protection against gain in excessive body fatness, is around 12 kcal/kg body weight/d. In conclusion, the amount of energy expended in physical activity, mediated by several metabolic factors, may play an important role in body weight regulation.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Use of 20% fat emulsion in total parenteral nutrition.

Sixteen elderly postoperative patients were randomized in a crossover study comparing isocaloric volumes of 20% and 10% fat emulsions used for total parenteral nutrition (TPN). The caloric intake was maintained constant during the two 7-day periods of each infusion. The indices measured after each period were total volume of fluid administered, change in body weight, hematocrit, serum sodium, creatinine, albumin, blood urea nitrogen, glucose, inorganic phosphate, and cholesterol. The total volume of 10% isocaloric nutrient solution was significantly (p less than .05) greater than that of the 20% solution. A rise in body weight and a fall in serum indices of hydration status were observed; five patients developed clinical signs of overhydration while on the 10% solution. These changes did not occur with the 20% solution. Thus, isocaloric substitution of a 20% fat emulsion for a 10% fat emulsion with TPN prevented overhydration and hemodilution without compromising nutrient intake.

Aged↗
PubMed2004

A walnut diet improves endothelial function in hypercholesterolemic subjects: a randomized crossover trial.

BACKGROUND: Epidemiological studies suggest that nut intake decreases coronary artery disease (CAD) risk. Nuts have a cholesterol-lowering effect that partly explains this benefit. Endothelial dysfunction is associated with CAD and its risk factors and is reversed by antioxidants and marine n-3 fatty acids. Walnuts are a rich source of both antioxidants and alpha-linolenic acid, a plant n-3 fatty acid. METHODS AND RESULTS: To test the hypothesis that walnut intake will reverse endothelial dysfunction, we randomized in a crossover design 21 hypercholesterolemic men and women to a cholesterol-lowering Mediterranean diet and a diet of similar energy and fat content in which walnuts replaced approximately 32% of the energy from monounsaturated fat. Participants followed each diet for 4 weeks. After each intervention, we obtained fasting blood and performed ultrasound measurements of brachial artery vasomotor function. Eighteen subjects completing the protocol had suitable ultrasound studies. Compared with the Mediterranean diet, the walnut diet improved endothelium-dependent vasodilation and reduced levels of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (P<0.05 for both). Endothelium-independent vasodilation and levels of intercellular adhesion molecule-1, C-reactive protein, homocysteine, and oxidation biomarkers were similar after each diet. The walnut diet significantly reduced total cholesterol (-4.4+/-7.4%) and LDL cholesterol (-6.4+/-10.0%) (P<0.05 for both). Cholesterol reductions correlated with increases of both dietary alpha-linolenic acid and LDL gamma-tocopherol content, and changes of endothelium-dependent vasodilation correlated with those of cholesterol-to-HDL ratios (P<0.05 for all). CONCLUSIONS: Substituting walnuts for monounsaturated fat in a Mediterranean diet improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation in hypercholesterolemic subjects. This finding might explain the cardioprotective effect of nut intake beyond cholesterol lowering.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Tropical oils: nutritional and scientific issues.

Individually and in combination with other oils, the tropical oils impart into manufactured foods functional properties that appeal to consumers. The use of and/or labeling in the ingredient lists give the impression that these oils are used extensively in commercially processed foods. The estimated daily intake of tropical oils by adult males is slightly more than one fourth of a tablespoon (3.8 g), 75% of which consists of saturated fatty acids. Dietary fats containing saturated fatty acids at the beta-position tend to raise plasma total and LDL-cholesterol, which, of course, contribute to atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. Health professionals express concern that consumers who choose foods containing tropical oils unknowingly increase their intake of saturated fatty acids. The saturated fatty acid-rich tropical oils, coconut oil, hydrogenated coconut oil, and palm kernel oil, raise cholesterol levels; studies demonstrating this effect are often confounded by a developing essential fatty acid deficiency. Palm oil, an essential fatty acid-sufficient tropical oil, raises plasma cholesterol only when an excess of cholesterol is presented in the diet. The failure of palm oil to elevate blood cholesterol as predicted by the regression equations developed by Keys et al. and Hegsted et al. might be due to the dominant alpha-position location of its constituent saturated fatty acids. If so, the substitution of interesterified artificial fats for palm oil in food formulations, a recommendation of some health professionals, has the potential of raising cholesterol levels. A second rationale addresses prospective roles minor constituents of palm oil might play in health maintenance. This rationale is founded on the following observations. Dietary palm oil does not raise plasma cholesterol. Single fat studies suggests that oils richer in polyunsaturated fatty acid content tend to decrease thrombus formation. Anomalously, palm oil differs from other of the more saturated fats in tending to decrease thrombus formation. Finally, in studies comparing palm oil with other fats and oils, experimental carcinogenesis is enhanced both by vegetable oils richer in linoleic acid content and by more highly saturated animal fats. The carotenoid constituents of red palm oil are potent dietary anticarcinogens. A second group of antioxidants, the tocotrienols, are present in both palm olein and red palm oil. These vitamin E-active constituents are potent suppressors of cholesterol biosynthesis; emerging data point to their anticarcinogenic and antithrombotic activities. This review does not support claims that foods containing palm oil have no place in a prudent diet.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Drosophila transcriptional repressor protein that binds specifically to negative control elements in fat body enhancers.

Expression of the Drosophila melanogaster Adh gene in adults requires a fat body-specific enhancer called the Adh adult enhancer (AAE). We have identified a protein in Drosophila nuclear extracts that binds specifically to a site within the AAE (adult enhancer factor 1 [AEF-1]). In addition, we have shown that AEF-1 binds specifically to two other Drosophila fat body enhancers. Base substitutions in the AEF-1 binding site that disrupt AEF-1 binding in vitro result in a significant increase in the level of Adh expression in vivo. Thus, the AEF-1 binding site is a negative regulatory element within the AAE. A cDNA encoding the AEF-1 protein was isolated and shown to act as a repressor of the AAE in cotransfection studies. The AEF-1 protein contains four zinc fingers and an alanine-rich sequence. The latter motif is found in other eukaryotic proteins known to be transcriptional repressors.

Alcohol Dehydrogenase↗
PubMed2003

Peanut consumption improves indices of cardiovascular disease risk in healthy adults.

BACKGROUND: Diets containing nuts reduce cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors. This has primarily been attributed to their fatty acid composition, but other constituents may also contribute. Peanuts, the most widely consumed "nut" (actually a legume), are a rich source of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), magnesium and folate, but their effects on CVD risk factors are poorly characterized. OBJECTIVE: This study determined the effects of chronic peanut consumption on diet composition as well as serum lipids, magnesium and homocysteine concentrations in free-living subjects under different conditions of peanut intake. DESIGN: Fifteen normolipidemic adults participated in a 30-week cross-over intervention. Subjects were provided 500 (+136) kcal as peanuts during an eight-week free feeding (FF) diet. The same amount of peanuts was added during a three-week addition (ADD) diet or replaced an equal amount of other fats in the diet during an eight-week substitution (SUB) diet. RESULTS: Energy intake from fat was increased through greater intake of MUFA and polyunsaturated fatty acids, while saturated fatty acid intake remained relatively stable under all conditions. Triacylglycerol (TAG) was reduced by 24% during ADD (p < 0.05), by 17% during SUB (p < 0.05) and by 14% during four-weeks of FF, but then rebounded to baseline by week 8. Dietary fiber, magnesium, folate, alpha tocopherol, copper and arginine increased during all treatments (p < 0.05). Serum magnesium increased in 13 of 15 subjects during FF (p < 0.05). No changes were found in total plasma homocysteine concentration. CONCLUSIONS: Regular peanut consumption lowers serum TAG, augments consumption of nutrients associated with reduced CVD risk and increases serum magnesium concentration.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Effect of antioxidant-rich foods on plasma ascorbic acid, cardiac enzyme, and lipid peroxide levels in patients hospitalized with acute myocardial infarction.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether a fat- and energy-reduced diet rich in antioxidant vitamins C and E, beta carotene, and soluble dietary fiber reduces free-radical stress and cardiac enzyme level and increases plasma ascorbic acid level 1 week after acute myocardial infarction. DESIGN: Randomized, single blind, controlled study. SETTING: Primary- and secondary-care research center for patients with myocardial infarction. SUBJECTS: All subjects with suspected acute myocardial infarction (n = 505) were considered for entry to the study. Subjects with definite or possible acute myocardial infarction and unstable angina (according to World Health Organization criteria) were assigned to either an intervention diet (n = 204) or a control diet (n = 202) within 48 hours of symptoms of infarction. INTERVENTIONS: Intervention and control groups were advised to consume a fat-reduced, oil-substituted diet. The intervention group was also advised to eat more fruits, vegetable soup, pulses, and crushed almonds and walnuts mixed with skim milk. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Reduction in plasma lipid peroxide and lactate dehydrogenase cardiac enzyme levels, increase in plasma ascorbic acid level, and compliance with diet, especially with vitamin C intake as determined by chemical analysis. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: A two-sample t test using one-way analysis of variance for comparison of data. RESULTS: Plasma lipid peroxide level decreased significantly in the intervention group compared with the control group (0.59 pmol/L in the intervention group and 0.10 pmol/L in the control group; 95% confidence interval of difference = 0.19 to 0.83). Lactate dehydrogenase level increased less in the intervention group than in the control group (427.7 vs 561.2 U/L; confidence interval of difference = 82.9 to 184.7). Plasma ascorbic acid level increased more in the intervention group than in the control group (23.38 vs 7.95 mumol/L; confidence interval of difference = 12.85 to 26.13). APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: Consumption of an antioxidant-rich diet may reduce the plasma levels of lipid peroxide and cardiac enzyme and increase the plasma level of ascorbic acid. Antioxidant-rich foods may reduce myocardial necrosis and reperfusion injury induced by oxygen free radicals.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2003

A reduction in dietary saturated fat decreases body fat content in overweight, hypercholesterolemic males.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: The effect of the quality of dietary fat on body composition is unknown. Our objective was to determine whether body composition is modified by the isocaloric substitution of a diet rich in saturated fat by a diet high in monounsaturated fat (Mediterranean diet) or a carbohydrate-rich diet in overweight subjects with hypercholesterolemia. METHODS AND RESULTS: The study involved 34 hypercholesterolemic males aged 18-63 years with a body mass index (BMI) of 28.2 (2.6), all of whom consumed a diet rich in saturated fat (SAT) for 28 days. They were then randomly divided into two groups of 17 subjects and underwent two dietary periods of 28 days each in a crossover design: a Mediterranean diet high in monounsaturated fat (MONO) and a carbohydrate-rich diet (CHO). The order of the diets was different for the two group. The CHO diet contained 57% CHO and 28% total fat (< 10% saturated fat, 12% monounsaturated fat and 6% polyunsaturated fat); the Mediterranean diet contained 47% CHO and 38% fat (< 10% saturated fat, 22% monounsaturated fat--75% of which was provided by olive oil- and 6% polyunsaturated fat). The variables measured at the end of each dietary intervention period were: 1) body composition by means of bioelectrical impedance; 2) plasma lipoproteins using enzymatic techniques; and 3) fatty acids in cholesterol esters by means of gas chromatography. BMI and the waist/hip ratio remained the same during the three dietary periods. A decrease in fat was observed when changing from a saturated fat diet (23.3 (6.3) kg) to a Mediterranean diet (20.8 (7.2) kg) (p < 0.05), or a carbohydrate-rich diet (20.6 (6.7) kg) (p < 0.05). Lean mass increased when changing from a SAT diet (58.4 (7.0) kg) to a CHO diet (60.2 (7.0) kg) (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The isocaloric substitution of a saturated fat-rich diet by a Mediterranean or carbohydrate-rich diet decreases total body fat in hypercholesterolemic males.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1988

Liposome-encapsulated hemoglobin: a synthetic red cell.

Liposome-encapsulated hemoglobin (LEH) is being developed at the Naval Research Laboratory as a universally transfusable oxygen-carrying blood replacement. A chemical engineering scale-up feasibility study has been completed recently. We report here the development of an encapsulation method which produces liters of phospholipid/cholesterol liposomes containing at least 16 g% hemoglobin in a few hours. The 0.2 micron liposomes are produced with a Microfluidizer TM (Microfluidics Corp., Newton, MA) adapted for this purpose, and then washed and sterile filtered using a Pellicon (Millipore, Bedford, MA) tangential flow filtration device. Previously, production limitations and lack of sterility have been serious barriers to toxicity testing for all the researchers engaged in related investigations. The biophysical properties of the LEH thus produced are ideal for use as a blood substitute, resembling those of red blood cells. The oxygen-binding affinity of LEH can be maintained at the level of fresh whole blood for many weeks by co-encapsulation of pyridoxal-5-phosphate. The circulation persistence time of liposomes is a function of the type of phospholipid. We have developed a formulation which has a circulation persistence time of 15-20 hours. The LEH oxygen binding characteristics, circulation half-life and its lipid composition dependence, scale-up preparation method, and a sterilization method are presented.

Animals↗
PubMed1978

Nutritionally-induced alterations in thyroid hormone metabolism and thermogenesis.

Serum 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3) is increased by overnutrition and decreased by starvation. The production rate of T3 was increased by overfeeding (82%), but T4 production did not change. Feeding a weight maintenance diet with high CHO mimiced serum T3 and rT3 changes of overfeeding, substitution of CHO by FAT those of starvation. VO2 increased during overfeeding and in T4 equilibrated volunteers supplemented with 40 microgram T3 daily for 2 weeks. No weight change occurred in the latter subjects. Yet no decrease in VO2 was found when serum T3 was reduced by the administration of iopanoic acid. VO2 decreased during starvation in normal and hypothyroid rats, and in hypothyroid animals replaced with T4 or T3.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Dietary patterns and breast cancer risk: results from three cohort studies in the DIETSCAN project.

OBJECTIVE: Only a few consistent findings on individual foods or nutrients that influence breast cancer risk have emerged thus far. Since people do not consume individual foods but certain combinations of them, the analysis of dietary patterns may offer an additional aspect for assessing associations between diet and diseases such as breast cancer. It is also important to examine whether the relationships between dietary patterns and breast cancer risk are consistent across populations. METHODS: We examined the risk of breast cancer with two dietary patterns, identified as "Vegetables" (VEG) and "Pork, Processed Meat, Potatoes" (PPP), common to all cohorts of the DIETSCAN project. During 7 to 13 years of follow-up, three of the cohorts--the Netherlands Cohort Study on diet and cancer (NLCS), the Swedish Mammography Cohort (SMC), and the Ormoni e Dieta nella Eziologia dei Tumori (Italy-ORDET)--provided data on 3271 breast cancer cases with complete information on their baseline diet measured by a validated food frequency questionnaire. RESULTS: After adjustment for potential confounders, VEG was not associated with the risk of breast cancer across all cohorts. PPP was also not associated with the risk of breast cancer in SMC and ORDET, but a high PPP score tended to be inversely associated with breast cancer in the NLCS study (RR = 0.69; 95% CI, 0.52-0.92, highest versus lowest quartile). PPP differed in one aspect between the cohorts: butter loaded positively on the pattern in all cohorts except NLCS, in which butter loaded negatively and appeared to be substituted by low-fat margarine loading positively. CONCLUSION: In general, the dietary patterns showed consistent results across the three cohorts except for the possible protective effect of PPP in the NLCS cohort, which could be explained by a difference in that pattern for NLCS. The results supported the suggestion derived from traditional epidemiology that relatively recent diet may not have an important role in the etiology of breast cancer.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Omega-6 fatty acids and coronary artery disease: the pros and cons.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids have long been recommended as a beneficial substitute for atherogenic saturated fat. The connection between dietary lipids and blood cholesterol is still under debate, as is the connection between dietary fat and coronary artery disease. Thus, the lipid hypothesis is still a hypothesis. The major dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid, linoleic acid of the omega-6 family, has several properties that render it hyperinsulinemic and atherogenic. The potential benefits of linoleic acid intake regarding coronary artery disease, and its possible harms, are discussed.

Coronary Disease↗