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PubMed2002

Daidzein and genistein content of cereals.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse 75 cereals and three soy flours commonly eaten in Europe for the phytoestrogens daidzein and genistein. DESIGN: The phytoestrogens daidzein and genistein were extracted from dried foods, and the two isoflavones quantified after hydrolytic removal of any conjugated carbohydrate. Completeness of extraction and any procedural losses of the isoflavones were accounted for using synthetic daidzin (7-O-glucosyl-4'-hydroxyisoflavone) and genistin (7-O-glucosyl-4'5-dihydroxyisoflavone) as internal standards. SETTING: Foods from the Cambridge UK area were purchased, prepared for eating, which included cooking if necessary, and freeze dried. Three stock soy flours were also analysed. RESULTS: Eighteen of the foods assayed contained trace or no detectable daidzein or genistein. The soy flours were rich sources, containing 1639-2117 mg/kg. The concentration of the two isoflavones in the remaining foods ranged from 33 to 11,873 micro g/kg. CONCLUSION: These analyses will supply useful information to investigators determining the intake of phytoestrogens in cereal products in order to relate intakes to potential biological activities. SPONSORSHIP: This work was supported by the United Kingdom Medical Research Council, Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food (contract FS2034) and the United States of America Army (contract DAMD 17-97-1-7028).

Edible Grain↗
PubMed2004

Cereal grains, legumes and diabetes.

This review examines the evidence for the role of whole grain foods and legumes in the aetiology and management of diabetes. MedLine and SilverPlatter ('Nutrition' and 'Food Science FSTA') databases were searched to identify epidemiological and experimental studies relating to the effects of whole grain foods and legumes on indicators of carbohydrate metabolism. Epidemiological studies strongly support the suggestion that high intakes of whole grain foods protect against the development of type II diabetes mellitus (T2DM). People who consume approximately 3 servings per day of whole grain foods are less likely to develop T2DM than low consumers (<3 servings per week) with a risk reduction in the order of 20-30%. The role of legumes in the prevention of diabetes is less clear, possibly because of the relatively low intake of leguminous foods in the populations studied. However, legumes share several qualities with whole grains of potential benefit to glycaemic control including slow release carbohydrate and a high fibre content. A substantial increase in dietary intake of legumes as replacement food for more rapidly digested carbohydrate might therefore be expected to improve glycaemic control and thus reduce incident diabetes. This is consistent with the results of dietary intervention studies that have found improvements in glycaemic control after increasing the dietary intake of whole grain foods, legumes, vegetables and fruit. The benefit has been attributed to an increase in soluble fibre intake. However, prospective studies have found that soluble fibre intake is not associated with a lower incidence of T2DM. On the contrary, it is cereal fibre that is largely insoluble that is associated with a reduced risk of developing T2DM. Despite this, the addition of wheat bran to the diets of diabetic people has not improved indicators of glycaemic control. These apparently contradictory findings might be explained by metabolic studies that have indicated improvement in glucose handling is associated with the intact structure of food. For both grains and legumes, fine grinding disrupts cell structures and renders starch more readily accessible for digestion. The extent to which the intact structure of grains and legumes or the composition of foods in terms of dietary fibre and other constituents contribute to the beneficial effect remains to be quantified. Other mechanisms to help explain improvements in glycaemic control when consuming whole grains and legumes relate to cooking, type of starch, satiety and nutrient retention. Thus, there is strong evidence to suggest that eating a variety of whole grain foods and legumes is beneficial in the prevention and management of diabetes. This is compatible with advice from around the world that recommends consumption of a wide range of carbohydrate foods from cereals, vegetables, legumes and fruits both for the general population and for people with diabetes.

Blood Glucose↗
PubMed2006

Synthesis and identification of 2,5-bis-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-tetrahydrofuran-3,4-dicarboxylic acid, an unanticipated ferulate 8-8-coupling product acylating cereal plant cell walls.

A new product implicated in cereal grain polysaccharide cross-linking has been authenticated by independent synthesis. Saponification of cereal grain fiber releases the RRRS/SSSR-isomer of 2,5-bis-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-tetrahydrofuran-3,4-dicarboxylic acid. The parent ester logically derives from 8-8-coupling of ferulate followed by water addition to one of the incipient quinone methide moieties and internal trapping of the other. The finding adds complexity to the analysis of plant cell wall cross-linking, but provides clues to important polysaccharide cross-linking pathways occurring in planta.

Acylation↗
PubMed2002

Growth studies of potentially probiotic lactic acid bacteria in cereal-based substrates.

AIMS: The overall growth kinetics of four potentially probiotic strains (Lactobacillus fermentum, Lact. reuteri, Lact. acidophilus and Lact. plantarum) cultured in malt, barley and wheat media were investigated. The objectives were to identify the main factors influencing the growth and metabolic activity of each strain in association with the cereal substrate. METHODS AND RESULTS: All fermentations were performed without pH control. A logistic-type equation, which included a growth inhibition term, was used to describe the experimental data. In the malt medium, all strains attained high maximum cell populations (8.10-10.11 log10 cfu ml(-1), depending on the strain), probably due to the availability of maltose, sucrose, glucose, fructose (approx. 15 g l(-1) total fermentable sugars) and free amino nitrogen (approx. 80 mg l(-1)). The consumption of sugars during the exponential phase (10-12 h) resulted in the accumulation of lactic acid (1.06-1.99 g l(-1)) and acetic acid (0.29-0.59 g l(-1)), which progressively decreased the pH of the medium. Each strain demonstrated a specific preference for one or more sugars. Since small amounts of sugars were consumed by the end of the exponential phase (17-43%), the decisive growth-limiting factor was probably the pH, which at that time ranged between 3.40 and 3.77 for all of the strains. Analysis of the metabolic products confirmed the heterofermentative or homofermentative nature of the strains used, except in the case of Lact. acidophilus which demonstrated a shift towards the heterofermentative pathway. All strains produced acetic acid during the exponential phase, which could be attributed to the presence of oxygen. Lactobacillus plantarum, Lact. reuteri and Lact. fermentum continued to consume the remaining sugars and accumulate metabolic products in the medium, probably due to energy requirements for cell viability, while Lact. acidophilus entered directly into the decline phase. In the barley and wheat media all strains, especially Lact. acidophilus and Lact. reuteri, attained lower maximum cell populations (7.20-9.43 log10 cfu ml(-1)) than in the malt medium. This could be attributed to the low sugar content (3-4 g l(-1) total fermentable sugar for each medium) and the low free amino nitrogen concentration (15.3-26.6 mg l(-1)). In all fermentations, the microbial growth ceased at pH values (3.73-4.88, depending on the strain) lower than those observed for malt fermentations, which suggests that substrate deficiency in sugars and free amino nitrogen contributed to growth limitation. CONCLUSIONS: The malt medium supported the growth of all strains more than barley and wheat media due to its chemical composition, while Lact. plantarum and Lact. fermentum appeared to be less fastidious and more resistant to acidic conditions than Lact. acidophilus and Lact. reuteri. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Cereals are suitable substrates for the growth of potentially probiotic lactic acid bacteria.

Culture Media↗
PubMed2000

Technical advance. Double-stranded RNA interferes with gene function at the single-cell level in cereals.

Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) has been shown to specifically interfere with gene function in several organisms including tobacco and the model plant Arabidopsis. Here, we report on rapid and sequence-specific interference of dsRNA with gene function in cereals. Delivery of cognate dsRNA into single epidermal cells of maize, barley or wheat by particle bombardment interfered with the function of co-bombarded UidA (GUS) and TaGLP2a:GFP reporter genes. Cognate dsRNA was also found to specifically interfere with the function of the endogenous genes A1 and Ant18 encoding dihydroflavonol-4-reductase in maize and barley, respectively. Dihydroflavonol-4-reductase is an essential enzyme of the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway in maize and barley. This pathway can be induced by transient expression of the C1- and b-Peru genes that encode transcription factors. In the presence of dsRNA corresponding to the dihydroflavonol-4-reductase gene, C1- and b-Peru-dependent, cell-autonomous accumulation of red anthocyanin pigments in bombarded cells of maize and barley was reduced. dsRNA was also demonstrated to negatively interfere with Mlo, which encodes a negative regulator of race non-specific resistance to the powdery mildew fungus in barley. In the presence of Mlo dsRNA, transformed cells became more resistant, thereby phenocopying plants that carry a heritable loss-of function mlo resistance allele. The results suggest that direct delivery of dsRNA to cereals leads to a rapid and sequence-specific interference with gene function at the single-cell level.

Alcohol Oxidoreductases↗
PubMed2001

Responses of milk production to the intravenous infusion of amino acids in dairy cows given diets of grass silage and cereal-based supplements.

Three experiments were carried out to examine responses of milk production to the intravenous infusion of amino acids in dairy cows given diets of grass silage and supplements based on barley, with or without added soyabean meal and ranging in crude protein content from 16 to 19% in dry matter. Particular attention was given to histidine, administered alone or in combination with methionine, lysine and tryptophan. Responses of milk protein secretion to infusion of histidine were seen only when the diet contained a supplement of barley alone. When soyabean meal was included, there were no responses of milk production to infusion of any of the infused amino acids. Calculations suggested that, although histidine remained first-limiting when soya was included in the diet, any response to infusion of histidine was blocked by the rapidly emerging deficiency of another amino acid, probably leucine. The results confirm that, for diets based on grass silage and supplements of cereal only, histidine is first-limiting such that increases of milk protein secretion can be obtained in response to infusion of histidine alone. In assessing the practical significance of this finding, it should be remembered that greater responses in the yield of milk protein can probably be obtained by substituting 1 kg of soyabean meal for 1 kg of cereal, which is likely to be an easier and cheaper option.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed2003

Enrichment of cereal protein lysine content by altered tRNA(lys) coding during protein synthesis.

The world's major crops are deficient in lysine and several other amino acids essential for human and animal nutrition. Increasing the content of these amino acids in cereals, our major source of dietary energy, can help feed a global population whose reliance upon dietary protein is growing faster than crop yields. Here we document the heritable expression in rice, the world's major cereal crop, of tRNA(lys) species that introduce lysine at alternative codons during protein synthesis, resulting in a significant enrichment of the lysine content of proteins in rice seeds without changing the types or quantities of the seed storage proteins.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2002

Identification of Fusarium graminearum in cereal samples by DNA Detection Test Strips.

AIMS: Development of a fast, sensitive and easy to handle method for the detection of Fusarium graminearum contamination in cereal samples by PCR. METHODS AND RESULTS: DNA Detection Test Strips were used for PCR-product detection and the method was compared to agarose gel electrophoresis. A minimum of 0.26 ng of purified target DNA was detectable with the Test Strip Detection limit in less contaminated samples was slightly lower when gel electrophoresis was used for amplicon detection. In highly contaminated samples, detection limits of both methods were similar. CONCLUSIONS: Detection of PCR products was performed in 20 min without the need of special technical equipment or hazardous fluorescent DNA dyes. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The new method described is useful for the screening of cereals in industrial quality control.

DNA, Fungal↗
PubMed2004

Ancient polyploidization predating divergence of the cereals, and its consequences for comparative genomics.

Integration of structural genomic data from a largely assembled rice genome sequence, with phylogenetic analysis of sequence samples for many other taxa, suggests that a polyploidization event occurred approximately 70 million years ago, before the divergence of the major cereals from one another but after the divergence of the Poales from the Liliales and Zingiberales. Ancient polyploidization and subsequent "diploidization" (loss) of many duplicated gene copies has thus shaped the genomes of all Poaceae cereal, forage, and biomass crops. The Poaceae appear to have evolved as separate lineages for approximately 50 million years, or two-thirds of the time since the duplication event. Chromosomes that are predicted to be homoeologs resulting from this ancient duplication event account for a disproportionate share of incongruent loci found by comparison of the rice sequence to a detailed sorghum sequence-tagged site-based genetic map. Differential gene loss during diploidization may have contributed many of these incongruities. Such predicted homoeologs also account for a disproportionate share of duplicated sorghum loci, further supporting the hypothesis that the polyploidization event was common to sorghum and rice. Comparative gene orders along paleo-homoeologous chromosomal segments provide a means to make phylogenetic inferences about chromosome structural rearrangements that differentiate among the grasses. Superimposition of the timing of major duplication events on taxonomic relationships leads to improved understanding of comparative gene orders, enhancing the value of data from botanical models for crop improvement and for further exploration of genomic biodiversity. Additional ancient duplication events probably remain to be discovered in other angiosperm lineages.

Edible Grain↗
PubMed2004

Impetus for sowing and the beginning of agriculture: ground collecting of wild cereals.

The Agricultural Revolution in Western Asia, which took place some 11,000 years ago, was a turning point in human history [Childe, V. G. (1952) New Light on the Most Ancient East (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London)]. In investigating the cultural processes that could have led from gathering to intentional cultivation, various authors have discussed and tested wild cereal harvesting techniques. Some argue that Near Eastern foragers gathered grains by means of sickle harvesting, uprooting, plucking (hand stripping), or beating into baskets [Hillman, G. C. & Davies, M. S. (1999) in Prehistory of Agriculture: New Experimental and Ethnographic Approaches, ed. Anderson, P. (The Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles), pp. 70-102]. During systematic experiments, we found that archaeobotanical data from regional Neolithic sites support ground collection of grains by early hunter-gatherers. Ground collecting suits the natural shattering of wild species that ripen and drop grains at the beginning of summer. We show that continual collection off the ground from May to October would have provided surplus grains for deliberate sowing in more desirable fields, and facilitate the transition to intentional cultivation. Because ground gathering enabled collectors to observe that fallen seeds are responsible for the growth of new plants in late fall, they became aware of the profitability of sowing their surplus seeds for next year's food. Ground collecting of wild barley and wild wheat may comprise the missing link between seed collecting by hunter-gatherers and cereal harvesting by early farmers.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2003

MADS box genes control vernalization-induced flowering in cereals.

By comparing expression levels of MADS box transcription factor genes between near-isogenic winter and spring lines of bread wheat, Triticum aestivum, we have identified WAP1 as the probable candidate for the Vrn-1 gene, the major locus controlling the vernalization flowering response in wheat. WAP1 is strongly expressed in spring wheats and moderately expressed in semispring wheats, but is not expressed in winter wheat plants that have not been exposed to vernalization treatment. Vernalization promotes flowering in winter wheats and strongly induces expression of WAP1. WAP1 is located on chromosome 5 in wheat and, by synteny with other cereal genomes, is likely to be collocated with Vrn-1. These results in hexaploid bread wheat cultivars extend the conclusion made by Yan et al. [Yan, L., Loukoianov, A., Tranquilli, G., Helguera, M., Fahima, T. & Dubcovsky, J. (2003) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100, 6263-6268] in the diploid wheat progenitor Triticum monococcum that WAP1 (TmAP1) corresponds to the Vrn-1 gene. The barley homologue of WAP1, BM5, shows a similar pattern of expression to WAP1 and TmAP1. BM5 is not expressed in winter barleys that have not been vernalized, but as with WAP1, expression of BM5 is strongly induced by vernalization treatment. In spring barleys, the level of BM5 expression is determined by interactions between the Vrn-H1 locus and a second locus for spring habit, Vrn-H2. There is now evidence that AP1-like genes determine the time of flowering in a range of cereal and grass species.

Edible Grain↗
PubMed1989

Colony formation from mesophyll protoplasts of a cereal, oat.

Differentiated leaf cells of gramineous plants, among them the cereals with their immense importance for human nutrition, are considered extremely recalcitrant to, if not incapable of, reentering the cell cycle. This recalcitrance is related to the poor wound response of the monocots-in contrast to most dicots-and the difficulties encountered in monocot tissue culture. We report here the highly reproducible induction of sustained divisions at high frequency (up to 95%) and colony formation from mesophyll protoplasts of a cereal, oat, demonstrating that-contrary to most earlier evidence-mesophyll cells of a gramineous plant have not irreversibly lost their potential for cell division.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1999

Ecological intensification of cereal production systems: yield potential, soil quality, and precision agriculture.

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), rice (Oryza sativa L.), and maize (Zea mays L.) provide about two-thirds of all energy in human diets, and four major cropping systems in which these cereals are grown represent the foundation of human food supply. Yield per unit time and land has increased markedly during the past 30 years in these systems, a result of intensified crop management involving improved germplasm, greater inputs of fertilizer, production of two or more crops per year on the same piece of land, and irrigation. Meeting future food demand while minimizing expansion of cultivated area primarily will depend on continued intensification of these same four systems. The manner in which further intensification is achieved, however, will differ markedly from the past because the exploitable gap between average farm yields and genetic yield potential is closing. At present, the rate of increase in yield potential is much less than the expected increase in demand. Hence, average farm yields must reach 70-80% of the yield potential ceiling within 30 years in each of these major cereal systems. Achieving consistent production at these high levels without causing environmental damage requires improvements in soil quality and precise management of all production factors in time and space. The scope of the scientific challenge related to these objectives is discussed. It is concluded that major scientific breakthroughs must occur in basic plant physiology, ecophysiology, agroecology, and soil science to achieve the ecological intensification that is needed to meet the expected increase in food demand.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2003

Evidence of the establishment of Cotesia flavipes (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a parasitoid of cereal stemborers, and its host range expansion in Ethiopia.

Three lepidopteran cereal stemborers, Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Crambidae), Busseola fusca Fuller, and Sesamia calamistis Hampson (Noctuidae) were collected from maize and sorghum in Ethiopia. The noctuid stemborers are indigenous to Africa while C. partellus is an introduced species from Asia. In 1999, the Asian stemborer parasitoid, Cotesia flavipes Cameron (Braconidae) was found to be widespread in Ethiopia, even though it had never been released in the country. In addition to attacking Chilo partellus, Cotesia flavipes was reared from B. fusca and S. calamistis. The origin of C. flavipes in Ethiopia may have been Somalia where it was released in 1997 near the border with eastern Ethiopia. Percent parasitism of borers by C. flavipes was higher in eastern Ethiopia than other surveyed regions, and parasitism was higher in 2000 than 1999. Parasitism was higher when cereals were intercropped with other plants and when wild grass hosts of stemborers were present.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

Availability to pigs of amino acids in cereal grains. 2. Apparent and true ileal availability.

1. Pigs prepared with re-entrant ileal cannulas were used to determine the ileal availability of amino acids in nine cereal grains including five wheats, sorghum (Sorghum vulgare Pers.), maize, barley and Triticale. 2. The average true availability of amino acids in these grains was 0.88 but there were consistent differences in availability among amino acids. Generally, lysine and threonine were among the least available amino acids while glutamic acid and arginine were among the most available amino acids in cereal protein. 3. There was much variation in amino acid availability within a grain species (wheat) as among the other grains.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed1981

Availability to pigs of amino acids in cereal grains. 3. A comparison of ileal availability values with faecal, chemical and enzymic estimates.

1. Availability values for amino acids in nine cereal grains determined by faecal analyses with pigs and by the Silcock available lysine test (Roach et al. 1967) and an in vitro digestibility assay were compared with ileal availability values for the same grains determined with pigs by Taverner et al. (1981 b). 2. There was a significant canonical correlation of ileal and faecal availability values. On average, apparent faecal availability of the indispensable amino acids was 4.2% greater than apparent ileal availability, but the difference was up to 12.6% for threonine. Furthermore, the difference appeared to increase as the digestibility of the grain decreased. 3. Silcock available-lysine values for the cereal grains were unrelated to the lysine truly absorbed by the pig. 4. There were close relationships of ileal protein and lysine availability values of nitrogen digestibility determined by an in vitro assay using pronase enzyme.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed1993

Adaptation to the digestion of non-starch polysaccharide in growing pigs fed on cereal or semi-purified basal diets.

Pigs (25-45 kg) were fed on either cereal or semi-purified basal diets supplemented with either high or low levels of sugar-beet pulp or wood cellulose (Solka-floc). The apparent digestibility and retention of N and apparent digestibility and metabolizability of energy (GE) and the apparent digestibility of non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) and their constituent monomers were measured during weeks 2, 4 and 6 of the trial. N and GE were less well-digested, retained or metabolized from cereal basal diets than from the corresponding semi-purified diets during all three periods. NSP from sugar-beet pulp was highly digestible, unlike that from Solka-floc which was relatively poorly digested. These differences of NSP digestibility were seen more clearly when incorporated in semi-purified diets. There was no significant increase in the digestibility or retention of N, or digestibility or metabolizability of GE, or in the digestibility of sugar-beet pulp NSP with increasing time-period on the diets. In contrast, the digestibility of Solka-floc NSP tended to increase with the time-period. The digestibility of NSP from the semi-purified diet with the high level of Solka-floc inclusion was much lower than that for the low level of inclusion, indicating that microbial activity had been reduced. In conclusion, adaptation to the diets in terms of N and GE balance may be complete after 1 week, but 3-5 weeks may be necessary before stability of measurements of the digestibility of resistant NSP monomers can be obtained.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1996

Zinc and calcium apparent absorption from an infant cereal: a stable isotope study in healthy infants.

Fractional apparent absorption of Zn and Ca from a wheat-milk-based infant cereal was studied in six healthy infants (18-30 weeks old). Mineral absorption was measured by a stable-isotope technique based on faecal excretion of the isotopes. Each test meal (40 g cereal) was extrinsically labelled with 70Zn and 42Ca before intake. All faecal material passed during the 21 d following intake of the labelled test meal was collected on trace-element-free nappies. Individual stool samples were analysed for their content of 70Zn and 42Ca by thermal ionization mass spectrometry. Apparent absorption was calculated as intake minus total faecal excretion of the isotopes over 68-92 h after administration. The fractional apparent absorption values for Zn and Ca were 33.9 (SD 16.4) % (range 19.2-63.9%) and 53.5 (SD 12.6) % (range 36.7-71.7%) respectively. Re-excretion of absorbed 70Zn (> 68-92 h to 21 d after intake of the labelled meal) was 0.44 (SD 0.38) % of administered dose while only one infant re-excreted detectable amounts of 42Ca (1.74% of administered dose). The analysis of individual stool samples confirmed that 72 h is a sufficient time period for complete collections of non-absorbed isotopes in faecal material from infants during the weaning period and that re-excretion of initially absorbed 70Zn and 42Ca (> 68-92 h to 21 d after intake of the labelled meal) is negligible.

Calcium↗