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Eyewitness memory for a touching experience: accuracy differences between child and adult witnesses.

Children, ages 5-6 and 9-10 years, and adults spent 6 min with a man (toucher) who administered a test that required interpersonal touch. The test was briefly interrupted by a woman (intruder). Afterward, the participant-witnesses provided a memory report that included free recall, answers to objective-memory questions, and two lineup identifications. Relative to the adults and older children, the 5- to 6-year-olds gave less complete free recall and made more errors in answering objective questions about the features and actions of the toucher and the intruder. On recognition tests, both the 5- to 6- and 9- to 10-year-olds were somewhat less likely than adults to make accurate lineup decisions about the toucher and much less likely to accurately identify the briefly seen intruder. Children may remember even salient stimuli and actions more poorly than adults do, but there was no evidence that children misremembered touches that did not occur.

Adolescent↗

Inferring children's categorizations from sequential touching behaviors: an analytical model.

A child is assumed to belong to 1 of 2 classes: categorizer or noncategorizer. To determine which, 4 toy animals and 4 toy vehicles were randomly arrayed for touching for 2 min. The task was to infer whether the child was a categorizer or a noncategorizer for vehicles and similarly for animals. A model is proposed that assumes a child's sequence of touches follows one probability distribution if the child is a categorizer and another distribution if the child is a noncategorizer. The proportion of children in each category and the probability of a child being a categorizer for, say, vehicles are among the quantities that can be estimated. Data from 18-month-old children are illustrative. The model appears efficient and robust.

Child Development↗

The role of feedback information for calibration and attunement in perceiving length by dynamic touch.

Two processes have been hypothesized to underlie improvement in perception: attunement and calibration. These processes were examined in a dynamic touch paradigm in which participants were asked to report the lengths of unseen, wielded rods differing in length, diameter, and material. Two experiments addressed whether feedback informs about the need for reattunement and recalibration. Feedback indicating actual length induced both recalibration and reattunement. Recalibration did not occur when feedback indicated only whether 2 rods were of the same length or of different lengths. Such feedback, however, did induce reattunement. These results suggest that attunement and calibration are dissociable processes and that feedback informs which is needed. The observed change in variable use has implications also for research on what mechanical variables underlie length perception by dynamic touch.

Adult↗

Mechanical invariants are implicated in dynamic touch as a function of their salience in the stimulus flow.

The authors investigated the mechanical basis of length perception through dynamic touch using specially designed rods in which the various moments of mass distribution (mass, static moment, and rotational inertia) were varied independently. In a series of 4 experiments, exploration style and rod orientation were manipulated such that the relative salience of moments of mass distribution varied markedly. Results showed that perceived length was based on the most salient moments. The authors concluded that the notion of salience is crucial for understanding the implication of moments of mass distribution in length perception and that it should play a pivotal role in developing an encompassing theory of dynamic touch.

Adult↗

Force can overcome object geometry in the perception of shape through active touch.

Haptic (touch) perception normally entails an active exploration of object surfaces over time. This is called active touch. When exploring the shape of an object, we experience both geometrical and force cues. For example, when sliding a finger across a surface with a rigid bump on it, the finger moves over the bump while being opposed by a force whose direction and magnitude are related to the slope of the bump. The steeper the bump, the stronger the resistance. Geometrical and force cues are correlated, but it has been commonly assumed that shape perception relies on object geometry alone. Here we show that regardless of surface geometry, subjects identified and located shape features on the basis of force cues or their correlates. Using paradoxical stimuli, for example combining the force cues of a bump with the geometry of a hole, we found that subjects perceived a bump. Conversely, when combining the force cues of a hole with the geometry of a bump, subjects typically perceived a hole.

Adult↗

Are there separate central nervous system pathways for touch and pain?

Information about bodily events is conveyed by primary sensory fibres to higher brain centres through neurons in the dorsal column nuclei (DCN) and spinal dorsal horn. The DCN route is commonly considered a 'touch pathway', separate from the spinal pain pathway', in part because DCN neurons respond to gentle tactile stimulation of small skin areas. Here we report that DCN neurons can additionally respond to gentle and noxious stimulation of viscera and widespread skin regions. These and other experimental and clinical data suggest that the DCN and spinal routes cooperate, rather than operate separately, to produce the many perceptions of touch and pain, an ensemble view that encourages novel approaches to health care and research.

Animals↗

Therapeutic touch, nursing practice and contemporary cutaneous wound healing research.

The nursing profession is and always has been at the cutting edge of research and development into innovative and effective methods to treat, manage and enhance wound regeneration. One such method which was developed specifically for nursing science is a non-invasive, easily administered technique known as therapeutic touch (TT). Although there have been numerous anecdotal reports over the last two decades attesting to the efficacy of TT for cutaneous wounds, there have been only five experimental studies to date which have examined the phenomena in a scientifically rigorous manner. These five studies utilized randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled protocols to analyse the effect of an experimental derivative of TT-non-contact therapeutic touch (NCTT)-on the healing rate of surgically administered full thickness human dermal wounds. The experiments introduced many original concepts and approaches to healing research and nursing practice. The data from the five studies indicated a statistically significant accelerated rate of wound healing for the treatment group in the initial two experiments, and non-significant and reverse significant effects for the remaining three studies. Although, experimentally, these results are far from impressive, clinically, the significant results of the first two experiments should be enough to encourage the nurse clinician to explore and utilize a similar non-invasive TT treatment method for patients with dermal lacerations. While the results of the studies were inconsistent overall, the series of experiments nonetheless significantly expanded the theoretical boundaries and understanding of the TT process and, due to the rigorous, double-blind methodological protocols used, have established the critical groundwork and guidelines for future nursing science research in the area.

Clinical Nursing Research↗

The effect of therapeutic touch on pain and anxiety in burn patients.

The purpose of this single-blinded randomized clinical trial was to determine whether therapeutic touch (TT) versus sham TT could produce greater pain relief as an adjunct to narcotic analgesia, a greater reduction in anxiety, and alterations in plasma T-lymphocyte concentrations among burn patients. Therapeutic touch is an intervention in which human energies are therapeutically manipulated, a practice conceptually supported by Rogers' (1970) theory of unitary human beings. Data were collected at a university burn centre in the south-eastern United States. The subjects were 99 men and women between the ages of 15 and 68 hospitalized for severe burns, and they received either TT or sham TT once a day for 5 days. Baseline data were collected on day 1, data were collected before and after treatment on day 3, and post-intervention data were collected on day 6. Instruments included the McGill Pain Questionnaire, Visual Analogue Scales for Pain, Anxiety and Satisfaction with Therapy, and an Effectiveness of Therapy Form. Blood was drawn on days 1 and 6 for lymphocyte subset analysis. Medication usage for pain in mean morphine equivalents, and mean doses per day of sleep, anxiety and antidepressant medications were recorded. Subjects who received TT reported significantly greater reduction in pain on the McGill Pain Questionnaire Pain Rating Index and Number of Words Chosen and greater reduction in anxiety on the Visual Analogue Scale for Anxiety than did those who received sham TT. Lymphocyte subset analyses on blood from 11 subjects showed a decreasing total CD8 + lymphocyte concentration for the TT group. There was no statistically significant difference between groups on medication usage.

Adolescent↗

Cautious caregivers: gender stereotypes and the sexualization of men nurses' touch.

AIM: The aim of this research was to explore the experience of men nurses and the ways in which gender relations structure different work experiences for women and men in the same profession. BACKGROUND: Men are now entering the nursing profession in record numbers and challenging the notion that men are inappropriate in caregiver roles or incapable of providing compassionate and sensitive care. A limitation of the current state of knowledge regarding caring and men nurses is that it is primarily focused on men nursing students, not practising nurses. Little is known about men nurses' practices of caring and how such practices reflect the gendered nature of nursing and nurses' caring work. METHODS: The theme of men nurses as cautious caregivers emerged from data that were collected in two rounds of semi-structured interviews with eight men nurses practising in Nova Scotia, Canada. Thematic analysis, informed by feminist theory and masculinity theory, was used as the method for analysing the data. FINDINGS: For men nurses, the stereotype of men as sexual aggressors is compounded by the stereotype that men nurses are gay. These stereotypes sexualize men nurses' touch and create complex and contradictory situations of acceptance, rejection and suspicion of men as nurturers and caregivers. They also situate men nurses in highly stigmatized roles in which they are subject to accusations of inappropriate behaviour. For men nurses, this situation is lived as a heightened sense of vulnerability and the continual need to be cautious while touching and caring for patients. Ultimately, this situation impacts on the ability of men nurses to do the caring work they came into nursing to do.

Adult↗

Tactual perception of embossed Morse code and braille: the alliance of vision and touch.

In three experiments observers made visual matches to tangible embossed patterns. Stained glass was used to blur vision and thus allow the effect of visual guidance of tactual exploration on the accuracy of symbol recognition to be evaluated. Stained glass rendered the embossed code invisible, but allowed sight of the hand. In the first experiment subjects identified patterns made up of dots and dashes drawn from Morse code; in the second and third experiments they studied braille. The results show that subjects are more accurate in 'reading' tangible codes when provided with visual guidance. Performance was higher for braille than for Morse code. Vision aided touch through the provision of a frame of reference and through sight of scanning movements. Naive sighted observers were able to identify invisible braille dots by watching other individuals touch the symbols, suggesting the importance of vision of kinesthetic patterns.

Female↗

Cross-modal interaction between vision and touch: the role of synesthetic correspondence.

At each moment, we experience a melange of information arriving at several senses, and often we focus on inputs from one modality and 'reject' inputs from another. Does input from a rejected sensory modality modulate one's ability to make decisions about information from a selected one? When the modalities are vision and hearing, the answer is "yes", suggesting that vision and hearing interact. In the present study, we asked whether similar interactions characterize vision and touch. As with vision and hearing, results obtained in a selective attention task show cross-modal interactions between vision and touch that depend on the synesthetic relationship between the stimulus combinations. These results imply that similar mechanisms may govern cross-modal interactions across sensory modalities.

Attention↗

The effects of stimulus location on the gating of touch by heat- and cold-induced pain.

The influence of heat- and cold-induced pain on tactile sensitivity, a "touch gate", was measured under conditions in which the location of the noxious stimuli was varied with respect to the tactile stimulus applied to the thenar eminence of humans. Vibrotactile thresholds were measured in the absence of pain and during administration of a painful stimulus, with the stimulus frequencies selected to activate independently the four psychophysical channels hypothesized to exist in human glabrous skin. Heat-induced pain produced by spatially co-localizing the noxious stimuli with the tactile stimuli was found, on average, to elevate threshold amplitude by 2.2 times (6.7 dB). Co-localized, cold-induced pain raised the average thresholds by about 1.5 times (3.6 dB). Heat-induced pain presented contralaterally produced no change in vibrotactile sensitivity indicating that the effect is probably not due to attentional mechanisms. Ipsilateral heat-induced pain caused an elevation in tactile thresholds even when the noxious and non-noxious stimuli were not co-localized, and the effect may seem to require that the painful stimulus be within the somatosensory region defined possibly in terms of dermatomal organization. Thus the effect is probably related to somatotopic organization and is not peripherally mediated. A brief discussion as to the possible locus of the touch gate within the nervous system is also given.

Adult↗

Illusory persistence of touch after right parietal damage: neural correlates of tactile awareness.

We studied a patient who experienced 'palinaesthesia', an illusion of persistent touch following tactile stimulation on the left hand, subsequent to a right parietal meningioma affecting primary somatosensory regions in the postcentral gyrus (SI) and superior parietal gyrus (Brodmann area 7), but preserving the secondary somatosensory cortex (SII) in the upper lateral sulcus. This subjective sensation was accompanied by transient increases in objective measures of tactile threshold. The patient had mild deficits in superficial tactile perception, but showed severe left-sided extinction for offsets of tactile stimuli during bilateral stimulation, but not for onsets of stimuli. Functional MRI revealed increased neural activity during palinaesthesia selectively arising within the ipsilesional-right SI cortex, but no abnormality within left SI and bilateral SII. Right SI responded to the onset of new tactile stimuli on the left hand but not to their offset. By contrast, any tactile events on either hand modulated activity in contralateral SII regions, even undetected left-sided offsets. These data demonstrate that illusory persistence of touch following stimulation on the hand may result from sustained neural activity in a restricted region of the SI cortex outlasting the offset of the actual tactile stimuli. These findings also provide direct evidence for a critical role of SI in mediating conscious somatosensory experience on contralateral parts of the body.

Aged↗

Effect of vision, touch and stance on cerebellar vermian-related sway and tremor: a quantitative physiological and MRI study.

Postural balance is impaired in individuals with pathology of the anterior superior vermis of the cerebellum. Chronic alcoholism, with its known vermian pathology, provides a viable model for studying the relationship between cerebellar pathology and postural stability. Decades of separate study of recovering alcoholics and post-mortem neuroanatomical analysis have demonstrated vermian pathology but few studies have used quantitative posturography, acquired concurrently with quantitative neuroimaging, to establish whether this brain structure-function relationship is selective in vivo. Here, 30 healthy men and 39 chronic alcoholic men, abstinent from alcohol for several months, underwent MRI for volumetric quantitation of the cerebellar vermis and three comparison brain regions, the cerebellar hemispheres, supratentorial cortex and corpus callosum. All subjects also participated in an experiment involving a force platform that measured sway path length and tremor during static standing balance under four sensory conditions and two stance conditions. Three novel findings emerged: (i) sway path length, a physiological index of postural control, was selectively related to volume of the cerebellar vermis and not to any comparison brain region in the alcoholics; (ii) spectral analysis revealed sway prominence in the 2-5 Hz band, another physiological sign of vermian lesions and also selectively related to vermian volume in the alcoholics; and (iii) despite substantial postural sway in the patients, they successfully used vision, touch and stance to normalize sway and reduce tremor. The selective relationship of sway path to vermian but not lateral cerebellar volume provides correlational evidence for functional differentiation of these cerebellar regions. Improvement to virtual normal levels in balance and reduction in sway and tremor with changes in vision, touch and stance provide evidence that adaptive mechanisms recruiting sensorimotor integration can be invoked to compensate for underlying cerebellar vermian-related dysfunction.

Alcoholism↗

Psychophysical assessment of the affective components of non-painful touch.

A novel psychophysical procedure for the evaluation of the affective components of touch was developed. A fabric material was stroked across the test site at a controlled direction and velocity, after which the subject provided a numerical estimate of pleasantness. Significant differences were detected for the sites tested (FACE vs ARM), the fabric materials used (VELVET, COTTON and PLASTIC MESH), and the velocity of motion (0.5, 5 and 50 cm/s). Attesting to their validity, estimates of pleasantness correlated negatively with estimates of unpleasantness obtained for the same stimuli. Moreover, subjects were reasonably consistent in their ratings upon stimulus replication. These findings demonstrate that the hedonic qualities of touch can be psychophysically evaluated, and that valid and reliable estimates are obtained.

Adolescent↗

Feeling touches in someone else's hand.

Cerebral damage may induce a delusional belief so that patients claim that their limbs contralateral to the side of the lesion belong to someone else (somatoparaphrenia). This disorder, which is not due to a general delirium, is frequently accompanied by the inability to feel tactile sensations in the 'non-belonging' part of the body. We report the unique case of a patient with somatoparaphrenia in whom dense tactile imperception in the left hand dramatically recovered when she was instructed to report touches delivered to her niece's hand, rather than to her own hand. We suggest that, through this verbal instruction, the mismatch between the patient's belief about the ownership of her left hand and her ability to perceive touch on it was transiently recomposed. This is evidence that apparently elementary deficits, such as hemianesthesia, and selective delusional behavior, such as somatoparaphrenia, may both originate from an impairment of the body image.

Aged↗

Developing an instrument for the observation of touching.

This article describes the development of an instrument for the observation of nonnecessary touching and its purposes in interaction between nursing staff and elderly patients in long-term care. The work took place on three wards of a nursing home. The instrument is based on three main concepts: verbal communication, touch as a form of nonverbal communication, and nursing care situation. In its finalized form, the instrument consists of a single sheet of paper with the human body pictured from the front and from the back.

Aged↗

Therapeutic touch in home healthcare: one nurse's experience.

Therapeutic touch is an alternative healing modality that is gaining acceptance. Home healthcare nurses have a unique opportunity to use this nursing intervention in their practice while working in the comfort of the patient's environment. A nurse who not only uses this healing modality in her home care practice, but who now also has her own therapeutic touch private practice, describes how it has affected her patients' and her own well-being.

Aged↗