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PubMed2003

Eyewitness memory, suggestibility, and repeated recall sessions in children with mild and moderate intellectual disabilities.

This study of eyewitness memory questioned children with mild and moderate intellectual disabilities (ID) about a live staged event 1 day later and, again, 2 weeks later. Children with mild ID performed as well as typically-developing children of the same age in response to free recall instructions, and they were just as able as same age peers to resist misleading questions. However, they performed more poorly on general questions, probing for further information after free recall. The children with mild ID also changed their responses to specific questions more often in the repeated interview. The group of children with moderate ID showed markedly lower performance than peers of the same age on nearly every type of eyewitness memory question. Comparisons of the children with ID to mental age-matched peers indicated that performance was similar, although children with ID gave more information in response to free recall instructions and changed their answers in the repeated interview more often. Standardized measures of verbal memory (TOMAL) and suggestibility (Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale) were modest to moderate predictors of eyewitness memory performance.

Child↗

PubMed2002

Confidence judgments in children's and adults' event recall and suggestibility.

The present work investigated the role of children's and adults' metacognitive monitoring and control processes for unbiased event recall tasks and for suggestibility. Three studies were conducted in which children and adults indicated their degree of confidence that their answers were correct after (Study 1) and before (Study 2) answering either unbiased or misleading questions or (Study 3) forced-choice recognition questions. There was a strong tendency for overestimation of confidence regardless of age and question format. However, children did not lack the principal metacognitive competencies when these questions were asked in a neutral interview. Under misleading questioning, in contrast, children's monitoring skills were seriously impaired. Within each age group, better metacognitive differentiation was positively associated with recall accuracy in the suggestive interview.

Adult↗

PubMed1976

The power of suggestion: another examination of misattribution and insomnia.

This experiment was conducted in an attempt to replicate and delimit the reverse placebo effect found by Storms and Nisbett in insomniacs. It was predicted that the reverse placebo effect would obtain when the pills' effects were described as affecting arousal (as in Storms and Nisbett's study) but that a direct suggestion effect would result when the pills were described as directly affecting sleep onset latency. Results indicated that direct suggestion effects obtained regardless of the focus of the instructions. The present study together with the findings of Kellogg and Baron call into question the reliability and clinical significance of the reverse placebo effect in the treatment of insomnia.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1997

Cognitive interviewing procedures and suggestibility in children's recall.

In this study the authors examine the effects of procedures adapted from the cognitive interview of R. E. Geiselman, R.P. Fisher, D.P. MacKinnon, and H.L. Holland (1985) on children's recall following exposure to misleading suggestions. Children aged 5-7 years and 9-11 years saw a videotaped story and were presented with misleading or neutral information concerning story details. All were later given free- and cued-recall tests preceded by standard interview instructions or instructions that reinstated the encoding context and encouraged exhaustive reporting. Increased recall accuracy was found following cognitive interview instructions. Both age groups were susceptible to misleading suggestions, but susceptibility was unaffected by interview type. The authors discuss the implications for interviewing child witnesses.

Child↗

PubMed1993

Suggestibility of the child witness: a historical review and synthesis.

The field of children's testimony is in turmoil, but a resolution to seemingly intractable debates now appears attainable. In this review, we place the current disagreement in historical context and describe psychological and legal views of child witnesses held by scholars since the turn of the 20th century. Although there has been consistent interest in children's suggestibility over the past century, the past 15 years have been the most active in terms of the number of published studies and novel theorizing about the causal mechanisms that underpin the observed findings. A synthesis of this research posits three "families" of factors--cognitive, social, and biological--that must be considered if one is to understand seemingly contradictory interpretations of the findings. We conclude that there are reliable age differences in suggestibility but that even very young children are capable of recalling much that is forensically relevant. Findings are discussed in terms of the role of expert witnesses.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

A missing link in suggestibility research: what is known about the behavior of field interviewers in unstructured interviews with young children?

Despite suggestibility researchers' focus on adult behaviors that distort children's reports, whether behaviors examined in experimental work are used in the field is unknown. The current study presents a mutually exclusive and exhaustive hierarchical coding system that reflects interview questioning behaviors of concern in experimental work. The study examined 80 unstructured interviews conducted by 41 field interviewers with 40 children ages 3 to 7 about known events. Data on the use of leading and neutral questions are presented and include distinctions between accurate and inaccurate suggested information. In addition, analyses show that interviewers are consistent in their style of questioning and that a preinterview measure of interviewers' preference for a qualitative versus a quantitative interviewing style predicted the introduction of novel information into the interview.

Child↗

PubMed1983

Magnitude estimates of cold pressor pain: effects of suggestions, cognitive strategy, and tolerance.

Pain magnitude when subjects immersed an arm in ice water was assessed by means of a magnitude estimation procedure during baseline and posttest sessions. Before the posttest session, subjects either received or did not receive an analgesic suggestion. Best-fit functions were linear, though power fits were also good. Analgesic suggestions had no effect on the rate of change in pain intensity. When subjects were classified as copers or catastrophizers on the basis of written testimony, pain intensity increased more rapidly for catastrophizers than for copers during the posttest session but not during the baseline session. Subjects who kept their arm immersed for more than 240 s were classified as high in tolerance. High-tolerance subjects experienced a slower rate of growth in pain intensity than low-tolerance subjects. Theoretical implications of the results are discussed.

Cognition↗

PubMed1989

The use of indirect hypnotic suggestions for insomnia arising from generalized anxiety: a case report.

This case report concerns an aggressive, independent, and financially successful businessman who suffered with insomnia within the context of generalized anxiety disorder. The hypnotherapy included indirect suggestions for the insomnia delivered through the vehicle of metaphorical stories designed as an indirect intervention for the generalized anxiety. The client's perception of the problem was clarified and respected, but the choice of intervention strategy was designed to indirectly suggest more global changes. The creative changes made by the client were positive and enduring at 2-year follow-up.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

The relationship between memory, suggestibility and hypnotic responsivity.

This study investigated the relationship between resistance to misleading information and performance on the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility (HGSHS:A), and examined the impact of obtrusive observation on subjects' hypnotic responsivity, memory, and resistance to misleading information. Eighty-five college students were administered the HGSHS:A in its standard form. Three additional bogus items were added to the HGSHS:A response booklet asking subjects to report whether they responded to suggestions that were not actually offered during the procedures. The endorsement of these items was used as an index of resistance to misleading information (suggestibility) for events occurring during hypnosis. Participants were also given a series of misleading questions related to events that occurred prior to the induction. Results indicated that performance on the HGSHS:A was not related to resistance to misleading information for events occurring during hypnosis or for events that occurred prior to the induction. As predicted, resistance to misleading information was consistent for subjects across the waking and hypnotic contexts. Also as predicted, being observed during the hypnotic procedures was related to lower scoring on the HGSHS:A.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

The "big five" and hypnotic suggestibility.

A recent approach to personality measurement argues that the essential personality traits are encompassed by 5 basic factors: openness/intellect, conscientiousness, neuroticism, agreeableness, and extraversion. This study used the Big Five Inventory to test the hypothesis that 1 or more of the 5 factors underlie hypnotic suggestibility. No meaningful relationships between hypnotic suggestibility and any of the 5 factors were found.

Adult↗

PubMed2007

Hypnotic depth and response to suggestion under standardized conditions and during FMRI scanning.

Hypnosis is a potentially valuable cognitive tool for neuroimaging studies. However, understandable concern that Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in particular may adversely affect hypnotic procedures remains. Measurements of hypnotic depth and responsiveness to suggestions were taken using a standardized procedure that met all the requirements for functional MRI (fMRI). Testing outside the scanning environment showed reliable and stable changes in subjective hypnotic depth, with no carryover once the hypnosis had been terminated. Within-subject comparisons showed that the magnitude and pattern of these changes and the degree of responsiveness to hypnotic suggestion were not discernibly affected by the fMRI environment. It is concluded that hypnosis can be employed as a discrete and reliable cognitive tool within fMRI neuroimaging settings.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

The plasticity of early memory reports: social pressure, hypnotizability, compliance, and interrogative suggestibility.

Early autobiographical memory reports by adults were very sensitive to social influence in a leading interview. The mean age of initial earliest memory report was 3.7 years. When participants were instructed to close their eyes, visualize, and focus on their 2nd birthday, 59% reported a birthday memory. After repeated probes for earlier memories, 78% of subjects reported memories at or prior to 24 months of age, and 33% reported memories within the first 12 months of age. The mean age of the final earliest memory reported was 1.6 years. Participants rated their memory reports as accurate and did not recant them when given an opportunity. The age of earliest memory reports in the suggestive interview correlated negatively with measures of compliance, hypnotizability, and interrogative suggestibility.

Age Factors↗

PubMed1999

Source memory and eyewitness suggestibility in older adults.

The authors investigated the influence of test format on the source-memory performance of older adults (N = 128). Each participant viewed a picture and wrote a description of the scene. Then half of the participants (control group) read a text that accurately described the scene; the other half (misled group) read a text that contained misinformation. After writing another scene description, the participants were given a surprise memory test. Half were given a yes/no recognition test, and half were given a source-monitoring test. The misled yes/no participants mistakenly indicated more often than the control yes/no participants that misleading-text items were in the picture (suggestibility effect). There was no suggestibility effect for source-monitoring participants. The data are discussed in terms of the source monitoring framework.

Age Factors↗

PubMed1996

Effects of temporally varied biased and unbiased story summaries on the suggestibility of preschoolers.

Preschool children's resistance to the influence of postevent misinformation was investigated. Ninety-one preschoolers (3 years 6 months to 5 years 6 months old) were read a story about a boy's birthday party. One week later, they received 1 of 3 summary conditions containing general information (unbiased, biased, or no summary). Two weeks after the original story, they were presented with either a biased summary or no summary. The children's suggestibility was assessed by a recognition test that provided a choice between the original and postevent misinformation. Those who received an unbiased summary showed higher recognition rates than those who received a biased summary, regardless of whether the biased information had been given at the 1- or 2-week interval. Although an unbiased summary followed by biased information did not produce greater recognition rates that were found in the control group, participants who received unbiased summaries did perform above chance, suggesting that even a vague summary may help to reactivate specific memory traces, particularly when information is bimodally presented.

Attention↗

PubMed1998

Memory states and memory tasks: an integrative framework for eyewitness memory and suggestibility.

An integrative framework (IMP) is presented which depicts performance in eyewitness suggestibility experiments as the participants' solutions of memory tasks, depending on (a) a specified task-relevant memory base and (b) the participants' perception of the memory task. Three theoretical explanations of the effect of misleading post-event information are reinterpreted and reduced to one single core: individuals answer test questions while assuming the consistency of event and post-event information. The impact of such consistency assumptions (a) is demonstrated in a first experiment, where the usual misinformation effect obtained with the Loftus standard test procedure disappeared when the participants' consistency assumptions were destroyed prior to testing, and (b) manifests itself in a qualitative analysis of individual processing strategies for discrepancies between details. Experiment 2, employing methodological innovations suggested by IMP, examined the memory base and found no evidence for memory impairment or misattributions of post-event details to the witnessed scene. However, a follow-up study conducted four and a half months later revealed a strong tendency for such misattributions which might indicate long-term integration of information.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1996

Double-blind, randomized trial of cessation of smoking after audiotape suggestion during anaesthesia.

We studied the use of intraoperative tape suggestion to improve the rate of cessation of smoking in 363 smokers who wanted to stop smoking. They were allocated randomly to hear a taped message encouraging them to stop smoking or to a blank tape, played during general anaesthesia. Overall 56 patients (15.4%, 95% confidence interval (CI) 11.7-19.1%) had claimed to have stopped smoking at 2 months and 29 patients (8.0%, 95% CI 5.9-10.1%) were confirmed to have stopped smoking at 6 months. There was no significant difference between the groups at either 2 or 6 months (risk ratios 1.06 and 1.09, respectively, P = 0.78). A preoperative:postoperative ratio of a visual analogue scale measuring the patient's motivation to stop smoking was not significantly different (control group 1.13 vs message group 1.10, P = 0.55). This study does not support the hypothesis that intraoperative tape suggestion can change smoking behaviour.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

Intraoperative therapeutic suggestions in day-case surgery: are there benefits for postoperative outcome?

To determine if improved postoperative recovery in surgical inpatients receiving intraoperative therapeutic suggestions are applicable in an outpatient population, 70 consenting, unpremedicated adults undergoing elective outpatient hernia repair under general anaesthesia were allocated randomly to either a therapeutic tape (TT) or a comparison tape (CT) group. A standardized general anaesthetic technique was used with propofol, fentanyl or alfentanil, isoflurane and nitrous oxide in oxygen. Pain, and nausea and vomiting were assessed after operation at 30, 60 and 90 min and at 2, 6 and 24 h. The presence of other side effects, such as headache and muscular discomfort, in addition to recall of tape contents, were also evaluated after operation. Absorption ability was measured before operation. The groups were similar in patient characteristics, preoperative, surgical and anaesthetic characteristics, and level of absorption. There were no differences in pain ratings or need for analgesics administered at any time after operation. Nausea/vomiting was experienced significantly fewer times by patients in group TT compared with group CT over the first 90 min (group CT 15%, group TT 4%; P < 0.02), but not over the last three assessment times (group CT 10%, group TT 14%; P < 0.25). The therapeutic tape group experienced fewer side effects over the entire postoperative assessment period (P = 0.03), in particular less headaches (P = 0.03) and less muscular discomfort (P < 0.02). Use of intraoperative therapeutic suggestions could present mildly significant postoperative benefits in outpatients.

Adolescent↗