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PubMed1997

The effects of gonadal steroids on brain stimulation reward in female rats.

The present study examined possible estrogen and/or progesterone effects on the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system using brain stimulation reward (BSR). It is well known that BSR with electrical stimulation of the medial forebrain bundle (MFB) depends on the functioning of the mesolimbic DA system. If estrogen affects this system in a manner similar to its effects on the nigrostriatal DA system, reward measures would be expected to vary across the estrous cycle. Cycling female rats were trained to bar press for electrical stimulation to the MFB. Animals were tested at each stage of the estrous cycle, after ovariectomy and 4, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h after hormone replacement with estradiol (10 micrograms, s.c.), estradiol and progesterone (0.5 mg, s.c.), or oil (s.c.). The rewarding value of the stimulation and the maximum rate of bar pressing increased during estrus, but not during proestrus or metestrus, as compared with diestrus. Hormone replacement had differing effects on reward and motor performance. Motor performance increased 4 and 24 h after estrogen alone and 24 h after estrogen with the addition of progesterone 4 h before testing. The rewarding value of the stimulation increased only 24 h after estrogen together with an injection of progesterone 4 h before testing. These results indicate that gonadal steroids affect the functioning of the mesolimbic DA system.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Anterior cingulate activity during pain-avoidance and reward tasks in monkeys.

We recorded single neuronal activities in the anterior cingulate cortex of monkeys while they were performing discriminative pain-avoidance and reward tasks: a prediction cue was presented for 0.5-1.5 s, followed by a red or green discrimination cue (1:1, random) for 1.0 s; painful stimuli were presented if the monkey failed to respond during the red cue; a reward was given, subsequent to a cued 1 s delay, if the monkey responded after the green cue. Among 775 neurons recorded, 196 neurons showed significant activity during one or more observation periods; 36 during the prediction period; 77 during the discrimination period; 41 during the delay period; 85 during the response period; 40 during the pre-reward period; and 15 during the reward-ingestion period. Of 77 neurons activated during the discrimination period, 47 showed exclusive activity either during the red (34) or during the green (13) cue: of 85 neurons activated during the response period, 64 showed exclusive activity either for pain-avoidance (37) or obtaining a reward (27). Control experiments confirmed that the neuronal activity could not be attributed to simple visual or motor processes. The results suggest that some anterior cingulate neurons are involved with anticipation of, and response selection for, imminent events.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed2004

Effort-reward imbalance model and self-reported health: cross-sectional and prospective findings from the GAZEL cohort.

Psychosocial factors at work have been found to be significant contributors to health, especially cardiovascular health. This study is aimed at exploring the relationship between psychosocial factors at work as defined by the effort-reward imbalance (ERI) model and self-reported health, using alternative formulations of this model, and comparing cross-sectional and prospective analyses for a large occupational cohort of men and women. The French version of the ERI model was used to measure the three scales of effort, reward, and overcommitment. Self-reported health was used as health outcome. Covariates included chronic diseases, frequent depressive symptoms, and personal, occupational, and behavioural factors. The cross-sectional and prospective analyses concerned, respectively, 10175 and 6286 workers. Men and women were analysed separately. Cross-sectional analysis revealed that ERI was significantly associated with self-reported health whatever the formulation used (ratio over one, quartiles, continuous ratio, or log-transformed ratio) for both genders. When effort and reward were studied as two separate variables, reward was a significant risk factor for both genders, whereas effort was for men only. Overcommitment was also found to be a risk factor for self-reported health for both sex. Prospective analysis showed that ERI was a significant predictor of poor self-reported health for men and women for two formulations (continuous ratio and log-transformed ratio). For both genders, effort did not predict self-reported health, but reward did. Overcommitment was predictive of poor self-reported health for men only. Our results highlighted the predictive effects of the ERI model on self-reported health in a 1-year follow-up study. They urged to explore various formulations of the ERI model. They also underlined the need for longitudinal study design and separate analyses for men and women in the field of psychosocial factors at work.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Job strain, effort-reward imbalance and employee well-being: a large-scale cross-sectional study.

This study investigated the effects of the Job Demand-Control (JD-C) Model and the Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI) Model on employee well-being. A cross-sectional survey was conducted comprising a large representative sample of 11,636 employed Dutch men and women. Logistic regression analyses were used. Controlling for job sector, demographic characteristics (including educational level) and managerial position, employees reporting high job demands (i.e. psychological and physical demands) and low job control had elevated risks of emotional exhaustion, psychosomatic and physical health complaints and job dissatisfaction (odds ratios ranged from 2.89 to 10.94). Odds ratios were generally higher in employees reporting both high (psychological and physical) efforts and low rewards (i.e. poor salary, job insecurity and low work support): they ranged from 3.23 to 15.43. Furthermore, overcommitted people had higher risks of poor well-being due to a high effort-low reward mismatch (ORs: 3.57-20.81) than their less committed counterparts (ORs: 3.01-12.71). Finally, high efforts and low occupational rewards were stronger predictors of poor well-being than low job control when both job stress models were simultaneously adjusted. In conclusion, our findings show independent cumulative effects of both the JD-C Model and the ERI Model on employee well-being and are not significantly different in men and women as well as in young and old people. In particular, high (psychological and physical) efforts and low rewards adversely affected employee well-being. Preliminary findings also indicate excess risks of poor well-being in overcommitted persons suffering from high cost--low gain conditions at work.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Measuring reward with the conditioned place preference paradigm: a comprehensive review of drug effects, recent progress and new issues.

This review gives an overview of recent findings and developments in research on brain mechanisms of reward and reinforcement from studies using the place preference conditioning paradigm, with emphasis on those studies that have been published within the last decade. Methodological issues of the paradigm (such as design of the conditioning apparatus, biased vs unbiased conditioning, state dependency effects) are discussed. Results from studies using systemic and local (intracranial) drug administration, natural reinforcers, and non-drug treatments and from studies examining the effects of lesions are presented. Papers reporting on conditioned place aversion (CPA) experiments are also included. A special emphasis is put on the issue of tolerance and sensitization to the rewarding properties of drugs. Transmitter systems that have been investigated with respect to their involvement in brain reward mechanisms include dopamine, opioids, acetylcholine, GABA, serotonin, glutamate, substance P, and cholecystokinin, the motivational significance of which has been examined either directly, by using respective agonist or antagonist drugs, or indirectly, by studying the effects of these drugs on the reward induced by other drugs. For a number of these transmitters, detailed studies have been conducted to delineate the receptor subtype(s) responsible for the mediation of the observed drug effects, particularly in the case of dopamine, the opioids, serotonin and glutamate. Brain sites that have been implicated in the mediation of drug-induced place conditioning include the 'traditional' brain reward sites, ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens, but the medial prefrontal cortex, ventral pallidum, amygdala and the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus have also been shown to play important roles in the mediation of place conditioning induced by drugs or natural reinforcers. Thus, although the paradigm has also been criticized because of some inherent methodological problems, it is clear that during the past decade place preference conditioning has become a valuable and firmly established and very widely used tool in behavioural pharmacology and addiction research.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Vagal cardiac control throughout the day: the relative importance of effort-reward imbalance and within-day measurements of mood, demand and satisfaction.

The effects of variables derived from a work stress theory (the effort-reward imbalance theory) on the power in the high frequency (HF_HRV) band of heart rate (0.14-0.40 Hz) throughout a work day, were determined using multilevel analysis. Explanatory variables were analysed at two levels: at the lowest level (within-day level), the effects of positive mood, negative mood, demand, satisfaction, demand-satisfaction ratio, and time of day were assessed. At the highest level (the subject level), the effects of sleep quality, effort, reward, effort-reward imbalance, need for control, type of work (profession), negative affectivity, gender and smoking on HF_HRV were assessed. Need for control has a negative effect on HF_HRV after controlling for time of day effects, i.e. subjects with a high need for control have a lower vagal control of the heart. In the long run, these subjects may be considered to be at increased health risk, because they have less of the health protective effects of vagal tone. The interaction between effort-reward imbalance and time of day has a positive effect on HF_HRV, i.e. the cardiac vagal control of subjects with a high effort-reward imbalance increases as the day progresses. It is discussed that this probably reflects reduced effort allocation, ensuing from disengagement from the work demands.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Feature-based anticipation of cues that predict reward in monkey caudate nucleus.

A subset of caudate neurons fires before cues that instruct the monkey what he should do. To test the hypothesis that the anticipatory activity of such neurons depends on the context of stimulus-reward mapping, we examined their activity while the monkeys performed a memory-guided saccade task in which either the position or the color of a cue indicated presence or absence of reward. Some neurons showed anticipatory activity only when a particular position was associated with reward, while others fired selectively for color-reward associations. The functional segregation suggests that caudate neurons participate in feature-based anticipation of visual information that predicts reward. This neuronal code influences the general activity level in response to visual features without improving the quality of visual discrimination.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Neural responses during anticipation of a primary taste reward.

The aim of this study was to determine the brain regions involved in anticipation of a primary taste reward and to compare these regions to those responding to the receipt of a taste reward. Using fMRI, we scanned human subjects who were presented with visual cues that signaled subsequent reinforcement with a pleasant sweet taste (1 M glucose), a moderately unpleasant salt taste (0.2 M saline), or a neutral taste. Expectation of a pleasant taste produced activation in dopaminergic midbrain, posterior dorsal amygdala, striatum, and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). Apart from OFC, these regions were not activated by reward receipt. The findings indicate that when rewards are predictable, brain regions recruited during expectation are, in part, dissociable from areas responding to reward receipt.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Reward-dependent gain and bias of visual responses in primate superior colliculus.

Eye movements are often influenced by expectation of reward. Using a memory-guided saccade task with an asymmetric reward schedule, we show that visual responses of monkey SC neurons increase when the visual stimulus indicates an upcoming reward. The increase occurred in two distinct manners: (1) reactively, as an increase in the gain of the visual response when the stimulus indicated an upcoming reward; (2) proactively, as an increase in anticipatory activity when reward was expected in the neuron's response field. These effects were observed mostly in saccade-related SC neurons in the deeper layer which would receive inputs from the cortical eye fields and the basal ganglia. These results, together with recent findings, suggest that the gain modulation may be determined by the inputs from both the cortical eye fields and the basal ganglia, whereas the anticipatory bias may be derived mainly from the basal ganglia.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Saccade reward signals in posterior cingulate cortex.

Movement selection depends on the outcome of prior behavior. Posterior cingulate cortex (CGp) is strongly connected with both limbic and oculomotor circuitry, and CGp neurons respond following saccades, suggesting a role in signaling the motivational outcome of gaze shifts. To test this hypothesis, single CGp neurons were studied in monkeys while they shifted gaze to visual targets for liquid rewards that varied in size or were delivered probabilistically. CGp neurons responded following saccades as well as following reward delivery, and these responses were correlated with reward size. CGp neurons also responded following the omission of predicted rewards. The timing of CGp activation and its modulation by reward could provide signals useful for updating representations of expected saccade value.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Rewarding results: Improving the quality of treatment for people with alcohol and drug problems.

Substance use disorders are the nation's number one health problem, and lie at the root of many public safety and workplace issues. Improving quality of treatment is as important as improving access to treatment. Leadership for improvement must come from many sources: Congress, SAMHSA, state legislatures, state and local treatment agencies, criminal justice, welfare and other public agencies, employers and managed care organizations, providers, and community leaders. We hope that our report helps leaders see ways to improve treatment quality. Our recommendations can be summed up in a single phrase: reward results. We recognize that there are many avenues for treatment quality improvement, including training, credentialing, best practice dissemination, work force development, facility licensing standards, improvement and implementation of new models for treatment of dual diagnosis patients. We believe, however, that rewarding results is essential to motivating action for improvement. We also believe that if providers receive rewards for improved results, they will creatively open new avenues for improvement--a focus on results gives greater freedom than more detailed mandates for change. Finally, we believe that rewards for result may lead to a restructured treatment system with greater stability and correspondingly greater capacity to improve. While we have placed central emphasis on the role of institutional buyers and managers of care, we believe that the voices of patients and families must be heard. People who have progressed to the stage of recovery, and their families, often have essential insight into what did and did not work for them--their personal stories are frequently compelling and persuasive. We also believe that providers of treatment for substance use disorders are profoundly committed to serving their patients, and often have great understanding of what works. Wise managers will listen very carefully and systematically to the voices of consumers, their families, and their providers. We have advocated that buyers reward results as a central strategy for improving quality. We believe that this is the best long-term strategy, not only to effect quality improvement, but also to end stigmatization and increase resources. We wish, in closing, to reemphasize our shared beliefs that adequate resources are essential, that treating persons with substance use disorders is always emotionally challenging and often profoundly frustrating and alienating, and that those on the front line deserve our unequivocal support and our profound gratitude for their service. Legislators should adequately fund public treatment and mandate parity in insurance reimbursement for treatment of substance use disorders.

Health Planning Councils↗
PubMed1996

Detrimental effects of reward. Reality or myth?

Based on seemingly overwhelming empirical evidence of the decremental effects of reward on intrinsic task interest and creativity, the use of reward to alter human behavior has been challenged in literature reviews, textbooks, and the popular media. An analysis of a quarter century of research on intrinsic task interest and creativity revealed, however, that (a) detrimental effects of reward occur under highly restricted, easily avoidable conditions; (b) mechanisms of instrumental and classical conditioning are basic for understanding incremental and decremental effects of reward on task motivation; and (c) positive effects of reward on generalized creativity are easily attainable using procedures derived from behavior theory.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Can the promise of reward increase creativity?

Two experiments, involving 436 preadolescent schoolchildren, investigated how the explicitness of promised reward affects creativity. In the first study, the nonspecific promise of reward increased the creativity of picture drawing if children had previously received divergent-thinking training (generating novel uses for physical objects). In the second study, promised reward increased the creativity of children's drawings if current task instructions clarified the necessity of creative performance. Promised reward evidently increases creativity if there is currently, or was previously, an explicit positive relationship between creativity and reward.

Child↗
PubMed2000

Can squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) learn self-control? A study using food array selection tests and reverse-reward contingency.

Eight squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) were presented with 2 stimulus arrays, namely 1 and 4 pieces of food, but they received only the array other than the one they reached for. In this reverse-reward condition, all monkeys initially showed a strong preference for the larger array. One monkey learned to reach toward the smaller array when a large-or-none reward contingency was applied (i.e., no reward followed a reach toward the larger array, but this array was given for a reach toward the smaller array). When correction trials and time-out were added to the large-or-none procedure, all remaining monkeys except 1 learned this form of self-control. Performance was maintained when correction trials were discontinued, the original reverse-reward condition was rerun, and novel array-size pairs were presented. This study demonstrates one form of self-control in a New World primate and shows the reverse-reward procedure to be a potentially valuable method for assessing species and individual differences in self-control and numerosity-related abilities.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Stress and rewards in women's multiple roles: the case of women in the middle.

This research examined stress and rewards experienced by 95 women who were simultaneously occupying the roles of caregiver, mother, and wife. The study examined role-specific stress and rewards as predictors of well-being (physical health, positive affect, negative affect, and role overload) and examined the effects of an accumulation of role stress and role rewards across these 3 roles. Role rewards contributed unique variance to well-being, even after role stress had been considered. An accumulation of role stress across roles was related to poorer well-being, whereas an accumulation of role rewards was related to better well-being. Findings indicated that caregivers' experiences in multiple roles could both detract from and enhance their mental and physical health.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2000

Reward discounting as a measure of impulsive behavior in a psychiatric outpatient population.

Impulsivity has been operationalized as a choice of an immediate smaller reward over a larger delayed or uncertain reward. This study examined a procedure that measures reward preference under these contingencies in psychiatric outpatients considered either at a high or low risk for engaging in impulsive behavior depending on their psychiatric diagnoses. The participants' rates of delay and uncertainty reward discounting were compared with their performances on a behavioral inhibition task and responses on a self-report personality impulsivity measure. The high-risk participants discounted delayed rewards more sharply and scored higher on the self-report impulsivity measure relative to the low-risk participants. Delay and uncertainty discounting were modestly correlated, but no other relationships were found between the other measures. Results from this study indicate that delay-discounting tasks may be sensitive to at least one form of impulsive behavior.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Summation of symbols by pigeons (Columba livia): the importance of number and mass of reward items.

In each of 3 experiments, different sets of 4 pigeons (Columba livia) were trained to discriminate between 2 visual symbols that covered wells containing food items that varied in number, mass, or both. In Experiment 1, the symbols were associated with 0, 1, 3, 5, 7, or 9 pieces of grain reward. The pigeons learned to choose the symbol corresponding to the larger reward, and on summation tests, they chose the pair of symbols that summed to the larger total reward. When number of food pellets was varied but mass of reward was held constant in Experiment 2, preference for the larger number symbols failed to appear. When number was held constant and mass was varied in Experiment 3, the pigeons showed a clear preference for the larger mass symbols on single-symbol and summation tests. These findings show that pigeons summate the value of symbols and are more likely to represent symbols by mass of food reward than by number of food items.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Dopamine and reward: comment on Hernandez et al. (2006).

Many lines of evidence suggest that the dopaminergic projection from the midbrain tegmentum to the forebrain must play a critical role in mediating the behavioral effects of natural and artificial rewards, with brain stimulation reward and addictive drugs included in the latter category. However, a closer look reveals many incongruities. The work of G. Hernandez et al. (2006) resolves several puzzles. It implies that the dopaminergic projection does not carry the signal that encodes the magnitude of a brain stimulation reward. It suggests that the elevation in the tonic levels of dopamine consequent on brain stimulation reward modulates the registration of the magnitude of the reward. This reconciles the psychophysical evidence with the pharmacological, electrophysiological, and anatomical evidence. However, some serious puzzles do remain.

Animals↗