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PubMed2005

Neuroscience and learning: lessons from studying the involvement of a region of cerebellar cortex in eyeblink classical conditioning.

How the nervous system encodes learning and memory processes has interested researchers for 100 years. Over this span of time, a number of basic neuroscience methods has been developed to explore the relationship between learning and the brain, including brain lesion, stimulation, pharmacology, anatomy, imaging, and recording techniques. In this paper, we summarize how different research approaches can be employed to generate converging data that speak to how structures and systems in the brain are involved in simple associative learning. To accomplish this, we review data regarding the involvement of a particular region of cerebellar cortex (Larsell's lobule HVI) in the widely used paradigm of classical eyeblink conditioning. We also present new data on the role of lobule HVI in eyeblink conditioning generated by combining temporary brain inactivation and single-cell recording methods, an approach that looks promising for further advancing our understanding of relationships between brain and behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

The role of sensory information in the guidance of voluntary movement: reflections on a symposium held at the 22nd annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience.

This article reviews a symposium on the sensory control of movement held at the 22nd annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience. Four speakers addressed a large audience on the proposition that "one can only control what one senses." Charles Vierck supported the notion with a description of the severe motor deficits caused by lesions of the spinal dorsal columns (DCs) in monkeys. In the discussion of Vierck's presentation, Robert Forget described the difficulties experienced by deafferented patients in tasks of daily life. Next, John Brooke showed that sensorimotor transformations vary greatly with task, anticipation, and uncertainty. In light of this, he questioned the simplifications inherent in servo and equilibrium-point theories of motor control. Paul Cordo then showed that in a rapid throwing task, proprioceptive information is used to control the moment of release (contradicting the idea that sensory feedback is too delayed for ballistic movements). Dick Burgess, like Brooke, criticized equilibrium-point models; he argued that a subject's sense of effort is a measure of the internal motor command, which should correspond to specific equilibrium points. However, his experimental data were inconsistent with this interpretation. He suggested instead that motor output is adjusted by comparing incoming afferent information to an expected "afferent template." Anatol Feldman and Mark Latash disagreed, saying that a constant sense of effort does not imply a constant equilibrium-point command. The equilibrium-point debate was not resolved, but the symposium ended with a consensus that in most motor tasks, one can control only what one senses.

Afferent Pathways↗
PubMed1989

Neuroscience and occupational therapy: vital connections. 1989 Eleanor Clarke Slagle lecture.

This paper presents the hypothesis that in-depth knowledge of the neurosciences serves as a common denominator that enhances our ability to interpret all aspects of human behavior. Neurobiological information can be used to design research to evaluate our existing treatment philosophy and methodology and to develop new theories and technology. Because occupational therapy addresses widely divergent diagnostic populations, three separate areas along the practice continuum were selected to demonstrate the application of neurobiological concepts: (a) neuroimmunomodulation, (b) organic bases of psychopathology, and (c) traumatic brain injury. Philosophical statements regarding effective methods of teaching neurobiology to occupational therapists are included.

Brain Injuries↗
PubMed2000

Behavioural neuroscience and child psychopathology: insights from model systems.

We have just emerged from "the Decade of the Brain", yet in so many ways it was the "Decade of the Genome". What relevance does the remarkable advance in knowledge in genetics and neuroscience over that period have to our understanding of child psychopathology? When the complexity of the genetic systems involved in behavioural regulation of relatively simple organisms such as the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans or the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster is considered, the possibility of comprehending the links from genes to behaviour in the developing child seems remote. Yet, the principles of investigation in model systems are not so different to those that should apply in humans. This review draws out the parallels, and introduces recent findings from behavioural studies of C. elegans, D. melanogaster, and the laboratory mouse, as well as humans, to illustrate the point.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Development of a wireless system for auditory neuroscience.

In order to study how the auditory cortex extracts communication sounds in a realistic acoustic environment, a wireless system is being developed that will transmit acoustic as well as neural signals. The miniature transmitter will be capable of transmitting two acoustic signals with 37.5 KHz bandwidths (75 KHz sample rate) and 56 neural signals with bandwidths of 9.375 KHz (18.75 KHz sample rate). These signals will be time-division multiplexed into one high bandwidth signal with a 1.2 MHz sample rate. This high bandwidth signal will then be frequency modulated onto a 2.4 GHz carrier, which resides in the industrial, scientic, and medical (ISM) band that is designed for low-power short-range wireless applications. On the receiver side, the signal will be demodulated from the 2.4 GHz carrier and then digitized by an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter. The acoustic and neural signals will be digitally demultiplexed from the multiplexed signal into their respective channels. Oversampling (20 MHz) will allow the reconstruction of the multiplexing clock by a digital signal processor (DSP) that will perform frame and bit synchronization. A frame is a subset of the signal that contains all the channels and several channels tied high and low will signal the start of a frame. This technological development will bring two benefits to auditory neuroscience. It will allow simultaneous recording of many neurons that will permit studies of population codes. It will also allow neural functions to be determined in higher auditory areas by correlating neural and acoustic signals without apriori knowledge of the necessary stimuli.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[The neurobiology of sleep: Cajal and present-day neuroscience].

AIMS: We briefly describe the most significant findings obtained recently concerning the sleep-waking cycle in comparison to the studies conducted by Cajal on the same subject. DEVELOPMENT: This paper includes a short biographical sketch of Santiago Ramón y Cajal, with special emphasis on his importance within the framework of neuroscience. Cajal represents the decisive turning point in neurobiological studies, with the discovery of the synapse and his law of dynamic polarization. We conduct a short survey of the current knowledge about the phases of sleep and oneiric phenomena, based on their anatomo-physiological foundations. We present a summary of the history of the subject and analyze the contributions made by Cajal to this field, i.e. his study of the associative cortices, which are essential in memory processes and related to the mechanisms governing the sleep-waking cycle. For Cajal the fine anatomy of the thalamus must be considered in relation to the specificity of its connections an idea that is still completely valid today. He did not observe any projections of the thalamic reticular nucleus towards the cerebral cortex, a fact that has been corroborated using modern-day techniques. He spoke of the involvement of neuroglia in the attentional and sleep processes, which is so, although not quite in the way Cajal thought. He considered the production of dreams to be based on intimate neural mechanisms, which is still so. He also studied other brain structures related with the regulation of the sleep waking cycle, although avoiding any specific mention of the mechanisms controlling such a cycle. Furthermore, he conducted self-observation studies with a high degree of insight. CONCLUSIONS: Cajal studied the phenomena of attention and sleep in an objective manner and contributed a number of significant interpretations, some of which are now somewhat outdated while others are still wholly valid today.

Humans↗
PubMed2004

Role of telemedicine in neurosciences.

That distribution of specialists in neurological sciences worldwide is lopsided is an accepted fact. That, increasing the number of specialists, providing them with the requisite infrastructure and maintaining high standards to provide neurological and neurosurgical surgical care worldwide is just not possible, is also accepted. Patients from suburban areas are sent to the limited number of tertiary neurosciences referral centers, incurring expense and time and resulting in overwork at these centers. It is easier to set up an excellent telecommunication infrastructure, to increase the reach of the limited number of urban specialists, than to put them in suburban areas.

Health Services Accessibility↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Guidelines on use of restraint in neuroscience settings.

Nurses working in neuroscience often have to manage patients whose behaviour puts themselves or others at risk of injury or compromises their care and treatment. The National Benchmarking Group has explored issues related to the restraint of patients and made some key recommendations. The aim was to develop guidelines for staff working in specialist areas on how to manage challenging behaviour while maintaining patient safety and dignity.

Decision Making↗
PubMed2000

International Behavioral Neuroscience Society - ninth annual meeting.

The main thrust of the meeting was, as always, basic research in behavioral neuroscience defined in a broad sense. Learning and memory, feeding and drinking, reward mechanisms, development of the CNS, anxiety and stress were the main topics covered. In a public lecture associated with the meeting, Larry Reid (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA) reviewed the quite compelling evidence in favor of the effectiveness of naltrexone for preventing relapse in former alcoholics. He also presented preclinical data demonstrating the remarkable effects of naltrexone given together with isradipine (Novartis AG) in blocking the rewarding effects of cocaethylene. This combination of drugs could thereby constitute a treatment for alcoholism complicated by cocaine abuse. Of potential therapeutic interest was also the description of the preclinical pharmacology and a phase II trial of a new cholinesterase inhibitor, methanesulfonyl fluoride (University of Texas). The possible physiological functions of sigma opioid receptors and the pharmacological properties of sigma receptor ligands were discussed at one of the symposia. Among the subjects covered were the potential use of sigma1 antagonists in the treatment of cocaine addiction and the efficiency of sigma1 agonists for preventing the decline in cognitive functions associated with old age.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1992

Serotonin neuroscience discoveries usher in a new era of novel drug therapies for psychiatry.

Serotonin basic neuroscience discoveries are evolving at a very fast pace and are leading to innovations in clinical psychiatry and in drug development. Numerous novel pharmacological tools, each selective for a given serotonin receptor subtype, are being applied to several psychiatric disorders. The strategy employed is theory driven and hypothesis oriented, aiming for new drug development that selectively targets receptors that are rational sites for therapeutic actions. Thus, serotonin uptake inhibitors are targeting not only depression, but also obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Serotonin1A agonists are targeting not only depression and anxiety, but also mixed anxiety depression. These and other agents selective for additional receptors are being tested in impulse control disorders; eating disorders; addictive disorders; and aggressive, violent, self-destructive, and suicidal behaviors. Serotonin research is an excellent example of how basic science discoveries in the 1990's "Decade of the Brain" are resulting in important advances in therapeutics for psychiatry.

Drug Design↗
PubMed2000

Australian Neuroscience Society--20th Annual Meeting. 30 January-2 February 2000, Melbourne, Australia.

This meeting presented a large array of high quality neuroscience research, some of which held possible relevance for therapeutic development. The potential use of multipotent neural stem cells harvested from adult brain for transplantation and regeneration therapy was highlighted, as was the increasingly central role of the p75 neurotrophin receptor in regulating neuronal cell death. Of particular interest were strategies for the prevention of neuronal death by systemic administration of p75 receptor antisense oligonucleotides. Other significant data included a possible synergy between prostaglandin receptors and opioid receptors in cellular responses, thought to underlie pain perception and opioid analgesia. Groups in Melbourne, Brisbane and Bath, UK, have isolated novel alpha-conotoxins from Conus marine snails, and characterized their effects on neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), highlighting their subunit specificity and effects on synaptic transmission. While none of these findings are close to effective clinical use as yet, they hold great promise for the future, underlining the necessity for basic research as a starting point for novel therapies.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1999

Neuroscience--Fifth IBRO World Congress. 11-15 July 1999, Jerusalem, Israel.

This congress, held every four years by the International Brain Research Organization (IBRO) and the World Federation of Neuroscientists, included a broad range of neuroscience presentations including many of pharmacological relevance. Delegates presented data on the pharmacological characterization and mode of action of numerous drugs at this meeting.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1999

Society for Neuroscience--28th annual meeting. Glutamate receptors. 7-12 November 1998, Los Angeles, CA, USA.

This meeting, stretching over 5 days with approximately 24,000 registrants, had approximately 13,000 oral and poster presentations covering all areas of neuroscience. This review focuses on a selection of new developments in the field of glutamate receptors. This area is receiving considerable attention from research groups in both academic and industrial establishments, and it is notable that many efforts are collaborative between workers from these different types of establishment. Glutamate receptors (GluR) can be classified as ionotropic (iGluR) or metabotropic (mGluR) receptors. Amongst the ionotropic receptors are the NMDA receptors, AMPA receptors and kainate receptors, whilst there are eight subtypes of mGluRs which can be placed into three groups on the basis of sequence homology, pharmacology and intracellular transduction mechanism.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1991

Clinical implications of basic neuroscience research. I: Protein kinases, ionic channels, and genes.

Clinical implications of three areas of basic neuroscience research are described in this review paper. These areas include: (1) the discovery of protein kinase C and its implications for diabetic neuropathy, (2) analysis of single ionic channels and the basis of Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome and cystic fibrosis, and (3) the cloning of genes for Duchenne muscular dystrophy and cystic fibrosis and new approaches to the treatment of these diseases.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Implicit memory and early unrepressed unconscious: their role in the therapeutic process (how the neurosciences can contribute to psychoanalysis).

The author discusses memory from the point of view of the neurosciences and molecular biology, proposing an integration with the psychoanalytic theory of the unconscious. The discovery of the implicit memory has extended the concept of the unconscious and supports the hypothesis that this is where the emotional and affective--sometimes traumatic--presymbolic and preverbal experiences of the primary mother-infant relations are stored. They could form the ground structure of an early unrepressed unconscious nucleus of the self. Identifying the unconscious with the memory leads to a theory about its morpho-functional organization. The unrepressed unconscious can be brought to the surface in analysis through the 'musical dimension' of the transference, characterized by the voice (its intonation and rhythm) and the prosody of the language. Dreams can symbolically transform pre-symbolic and preverbal experiences, so that they can be put into words and thought about even without their recollection. Dreams can also create images to fi ll the gap of the absence of representation which characterize the unrepressed unconscious. The description of a segment of analysis of a patient suffering from death anxiety provides a clinical illustration of the theories discussed. The interpretation of her voice and of the prosody of her language, besides the work on dreams, reproduced the emotional essence of the analysand's traumatic childhood experiences. This reconstruction enabled her to speak and think about them even without the actual recollection.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

[Centennial of the nobel prize for Golgi and Cajal--founding of modern neuroscience and irony of discovery].

In 1906, Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system". However, it was an unusual occasion in the history of Nobel Prize award because their views on the structure of the nervous system were not only different but even opposite, creating the "storm center of histological controversy". Furthermore, the new staining method Cajal had employed to study the nervous system was developed by Golgi, creating an irony of discovery. In 1873, Golgi revolutionized the histological study of the nervous system by developing a new staining method, "la reazione nera" or black reaction, which allowed good visualization of axons, dendrites and glia. But because his stain was so selective, staining only about 3 percent of neurons, he was unable to see clearly how the neuronal processes ended as they approached other neurons. Consequently, he embraced the popular belief that neuronal processes physically fuse with each other--the "reticular theory". On the other hand, Cajal was incidentally introduced to the Golgi stain 14 years after its discovery and immediately realized its beauty. He found that better results could be produced by staining more intensely and cutting thicker sections. He further observed that the Golgi stain worked best on non-myelinated axons. The search for brains containing non-myelinated axons led him to study birds and very young mammals, including embryos. Cajal obtained fascinating results by modifying the Golgi stain and by studying avian and young mammalian brains. From those studies, Cajal was able to infer that axons and dendrites ended freely and did not physically anastomose. Therefore, he strongly advocated the "neuron theory". Golgi seemed to be too headstrong and too conservative to relinquish his belief that neurons constitute a network which reacts as a whole. On the other hand, Cajal's hard work using the Golgi stain led to new understanding on the structure and function of the nervous system, and earned him "the founder of modern neuroscience". This centennial occasion may be further impressed by Cajal's comment on the shared Nobel Prize that "what a cruel irony of fate of pair, like Siamese twins united by the shoulders, scientific adversaries of such contrasting character!".

History, 19th Century↗
PubMed1990

[Monoamine research--a productive field of particular importance in neuroscience].

Modern monoamine research had its origin in work done in the 1950s and 1960s to elucidate the modes of action of the major groups of psychotropic drugs, since when it has played a spearhead role in neuroscience. For example, it has contributed much to the introduction of the chemical neurotransmission concept in CNS-research. We are now about to reap the harvest of more than three decades of intensive and successful basic research, in the form of more efficacious and safer drugs for the treatment of certain important mental and neurological disorders, and the formulation of research strategies focused on prophylaxis. The paper reviews this development.

Animals↗