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PubMed2005

Functional outcome of knee articular cartilage repair in adolescent athletes.

BACKGROUND: Limited information exists about the treatment of full-thickness articular cartilage lesions of the knee in adolescent athletes. PURPOSE: To evaluate the functional outcome and athletic activity after articular cartilage repair in the knees of adolescent athletes. STUDY DESIGN: Case series; Level of evidence, 4. METHODS: Twenty adolescent athletes with full-thickness articular cartilage lesions of the knee were treated with autologous chondrocyte transplantation. Functional outcome was evaluated by subjective patient outcome rating, knee activity scores, and level of athletic participation. RESULTS: At a mean of 47 months after autologous chondrocyte transplantation, 96% of adolescents reported good or excellent results with significant increases in postoperative Tegner activity scores and Lysholm scores. Ninety-six percent returned to high-impact sports and 60% to an athletic level equal or higher than that before knee injury. Return to preinjury sports correlated with shorter preoperative symptoms and a lower number of prior operations. All adolescents with preoperative symptoms < or =12 months returned to preinjury-level athletics, compared to 33% with preoperative intervals longer than 12 months. CONCLUSION: Treatment of full-thickness articular injuries of the knee in adolescent athletes with autologous chondrocyte transplantation yields a high rate of functional success at a mean follow-up of 47 months. The rate of return to demanding athletic activities is higher in cases in which the preoperative duration of symptoms is 12 months or less.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Uniportal endoscopic plantar fasciotomy: a prospective study on athletic patients.

BACKGROUND: Endoscopic techniques have been described to surgically treat plantar fasciitis in the general patient population. A prospective, single-surgeon study was conducted to evaluate if a uniportal endoscopic plantar fasciotomy technique is effective in allowing athletic patients to return to their desired activities. METHODS: Sixteen patients with plantar fasciitis who were athletically active were compared to a control group that consisted of 10 patients who did not engage in sports. Most of the athletic patients were runners. Mean age at time of surgery was 39.8 +/- 13.1 years for the athletic group and 51.2 +/- 5.5 years for the control group (p < .01). All patients had conservative treatment for a minimum of 8 months (mean 19.4 months; range 8 to 50). All patients were rated for body mass index (BMI), and the Modified Plantar Fascia Score (MPFS) was obtained before and after endoscopic release. The preoperative MPFS was 42.0 +/- 2.5 for the athletic group and 23.6 +/- 15.7 for the control group (p < .01). All patients had uniportal endoscopic plantar fasciotomy with transection of the medial 50% of the plantar fascia. Postoperatively patients were kept in a low, below-knee, removable cast-boot for a total of 4 weeks, nonweightbearing for the first 2 weeks. RESULTS: The mean return-to-activity time after surgery was 2.6 +/- 0.7 months. The mean postoperative MPFS was 93.3 +/- 2.4, which was a significant improvement (p = .00001). Using this scoring system score, all results in athletes were excellent or good. The control group had a mean postoperative MPFS of 63.6 +/- 27.1, also significantly improved (p = .0006) but lower than the athletic group (p = .00001). All five poor results in the controls had a BMI of more than 27. Good or excellent results in the control group were obtained only in patients who walked for exercise. The BMI was statistically lower in the athletic group than in the control group (p = .00001). The average BMI in women was significantly higher (p = .02) than in men, and they required a longer time to return to activity (p = .01). CONCLUSION: Athletic patients undergoing uniportal endoscopic plantar fasciotomy can expect good to excellent results based on the MPFS. Fifty percent of the patients with a BMI of more than 27 had poor results.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Magnetic resonance imaging of overall and regional body fat, estrogen metabolism, and ovulation of athletes compared to controls.

The association of menstrual dysfunction of athletes with changes in body composition has been controversial, because most estimations of body fatness have been indirect. Using magnetic resonance imaging, we quantified the sc and internal fat over a specific volume from the fifth thoracic vertebra to femoral fat in the upper thigh and at 4 other anatomical landmarks of 17 athletes (13 oarswomen and 4 runners) compared to that in 11 nonathletic controls. The magnetic resonance imaging data were also analyzed for the athletes and controls in relation to ovulatory status, which was determined by assay of urinary pregnanediol glucuronide, and in relation to the extent of 2-hydroxylation of estradiol to a nonpotent metabolite, 2-hydroxyestrone, which was evaluated by radiometric analysis. We found that 1) the relative and absolute body fat values of the athletes were significantly less (P < 0.05) than those of the controls overall and at each of the six regional sites, although the body weights of the rowers were significantly heavier than those of the controls, and the runners did not differ from the controls; 2) the ratio of sc fat to internal fat was 80%:20% among both athletes and controls, even though the athletes had significantly less fat; 3) the extent of estradiol 2-hydroxylation was significantly (P = 0.005) inversely related to total fat as a percentage of the total volume and to sc fat as a percentage of the total volume (P = 0.004) overall and at each of the regional fat depots; 4) athletes with menstrual disorders had significantly decreased sc and internal fat overall and at all regional sites compared to controls; and 5) a subgroup of ovulatory rowers had an apparent increase or lack of decrease in internal fat at the level of vertebrae lumbar 4, sacral 1, and sacral 4, compared to controls, whereas their sc fat was decreased at these sites compared to that in controls. Changes in regional fat deposits of both sc and internal fat may be involved in the menstrual dysfunction of the athletes in addition to their decreased overall fatness. The body weight and body mass index of well trained athletes can be a misleading index of body composition.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2006

Concussion in professional football: recovery of NFL and high school athletes assessed by computerized neuropsychological testing--Part 12.

OBJECTIVE: Acute recovery from concussion (mild traumatic brain injury) is assessed in samples of NFL and high school athletes evaluated within days of injury. METHODS: All athletes were evaluated within days of injury using a computer-based neuropsychological test and symptom inventory protocol. Test performance was compared to preinjury baseline levels of a similar but not identical group of athletes who had undergone preseason testing. Statistical analyses were completed using Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA). RESULTS: NFL athletes demonstrated a rapid neuropsychological recovery. As a group, NFL athletes returned to baseline performance in a week with the majority of athletes having normal performance two days after injury. High school athletes demonstrated a slower recovery than NFL athletes. CONCLUSION: Computer-based neuropsychological testing was used within the overall medical evaluation and care of NFL athletes. As found in a prior study using more traditional neuropsychological testing, NFL players did not demonstrate decrements in neuropsychological performance beyond one week of injury. High school players demonstrated more prolonged neuropsychological effects of concussion.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Overweight athlete: fact or fiction?

Maintaining appropriate body weight is important for athletic performance. Body mass index (BMI) is commonly used to classify an individual's body weight. However, in the case of athletes, who may have a high body weight due to higher lean body mass, BMI may lead to misclassification of the athlete as overweight or obese. Thus, both BMI and body composition assessment should be conducted before determining if an athlete is overweight or obese. Body weight goals of athletes should be determined for each athlete, based on the requirements of the sport, the athlete's body size and shape, and in consultation with the athlete, coaches, and trainers. Safe weight loss goals should be established on an individual basis. Athletes, coaches, and trainers should work closely with individuals who have training in nutrition (registered dietitians) to set appropriate weight goals and to develop weight management protocols that promote healthy eating.

Body Composition↗
PubMed2003

The relationship of left ventricular to femoral artery structure in male athletes.

PURPOSE: In humans, cardiac morphological adaptations to athletic training have been exhaustively described, while the existence of morphologic (adaptive) changes in the peripheral vessels are less well known. Therefore, the scope of the present study was 1) to assess the existence of morphologic changes in the peripheral vessels, such as the common femoral artery (CFA), in athletes engaged in different types of sports; and 2) to assess the relationship existing between the cardiac and CFA changes in highly endurance- ( N = 16) and strength-trained athletes ( N = 15), and in sedentary controls ( N = 20). METHODS: The cross-sectional diameters of the left ventricular (LV) posterior wall and cavity and CFA diameter and intima-media thickness were determined by M-mode echocardiography and ultrasound, respectively. RESULTS: CFA intima-media thickness in the endurance-trained (0.33 +/- 0.03 mm.m(-2) ) was similar to the strength-trained athletes (0.34 +/- 0.05 mm.m(-2) ) and both greater (P < 0.01) compared with the controls (0.27 +/- 0.03 mm.m(-2) ). CFA diameter in endurance-trained athletes (5.6 +/- 0.6 mm.m(-2) ) was highest among groups (strength-trained athletes 4.2 +/- 0.4 mm.m(-2), controls 4.2 +/- 0.5 mm.m(-2) ). Thus, the relative CFA wall thickness (2.intima-media thickness/CFA diameter) was significantly higher (P < 0.01) in the strength-trained (0.16 +/- 0.02) than in the endurance-trained athletes (0.13 +/- 0.02) and the controls (0.13 +/- 0.02), respectively. The relative LV posterior wall thickness (2.LV posterior wall thickness/LV diameter) was not significantly different among the groups. LV posterior wall thickness was significantly related to CFA intima-media thickness (r = 0.31, P < 0.05) and LV diameter to CFA diameter (r = 0.55, P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The study shows a physiological relationship between the LV and CFA wall and cavity dimensions in endurance-trained athletes and controls, respectively. The greater relative wall thickness of the strength-trained athletes may be related to different influencing factors, e.g., increased blood pressure.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2004

Asthma medication in Finnish olympic athletes: no signs of inhaled beta2-agonist overuse.

INTRODUCTION: Occurrence of asthma has been reported to be frequent in endurance athletes and especially high in winter sport athletes. Recently, the International Olympic Committee has restricted the use of inhaled beta2-agonists and requires documentation for their use. However, epidemiologic data comparing the use of antiasthmatic medication in different sport events are mostly missing. METHODS: A cross-sectional questionnaire survey was carried out in 2002. All the athletes (N = 494) financially supported by National Olympic Committee comprised the study group. Of them, 446 (90.3%) filled in a structured questionnaire concerning asthma and allergies, use of medication, characteristics of sport activities, and smoking habits. A representative sample of Finnish young adults (N = 1 504) served as controls. RESULTS: Physician-diagnosed asthma was more common in athletes as compared with controls (13.9% vs 8.4%). Use of any asthma medication was reported by 9.6% of the athletes and by 4.2% of the controls. No difference was observed in the frequency of asthma medication used by winter or summer sport athletes (10.0% vs 9.4%). Inhaled beta2-agonists were used by 7.4% and 3.0% of the athletes and controls, respectively. After adjusting for age, sex, and smoking, odds ratio with 95% confidence interval for use of any asthma medication was 0.69 (0.17-2.92) for motor skills demanding events, 1.87 (0.85-4.11) for speed and power sports, 3.00 (1.68-5.37) for team sports, and 4.16 (2.22-7.78) for endurance events as compared with controls. None of the athletes used antiasthmatic medication without physician diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: The frequency of antiasthmatic medication is clearly lower than the occurrence of physician-diagnosed asthma in Finnish Olympic athletes. No evidence of overuse of inhaled beta2-agonists is found.

Administration, Inhalation↗
PubMed2006

Iron status of female collegiate athletes involved in different sports.

Iron status was assessed in 70 female athletes aged 18-25 yr participating in collegiate cross-country track, tennis, softball, swimming, soccer, basketball, and gymnastics. No significant differences in mean hemoglobin, hematocrit, serum iron, total iron-binding capacity, transferrin saturation, and ferritin were found among teams. The mean concentrations of each parameter for each of the teams were within the normal ranges. However, several athletes from different sports had suboptimal iron status indexes. Of 17 athletes with a serum ferritin concentration < or = 15 microg/L, 8 (4 freshmen, 2 sophomores, 2 unknown) also exhibited low serum iron concentrations (< 60 microg/dL) and low transferrin saturation (< 16%). Thirteen (6 freshmen, 3 sophomores, 2 juniors, 2 seniors) of 51 (25%) athletes failed to consume two-thirds of the Recommended Dietary Allowance for iron and exhibited suboptimal serum concentrations of ferritin, iron, and/or transferrin saturation. Of nine athletes taking iron supplements, one exhibited suboptimal iron status. In summary, nonanemic iron depletion was present among female collegiate athletes involved in many different sports and in all years of participation (freshmen, sophomore, junior, and senior athletes). Female athletes should continue to be individually and routinely evaluated for nutritional deficiencies throughout their collegiate athletic careers.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

The assessment of bone metabolism in female elite endurance athletes by biochemical bone markers.

PURPOSE: Premature osteoporosis is a frequent problem in female athletes. Current concepts suggest that a disruption of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis leads to hypoestrogenism, which then causes amenorrhea and osteoporosis. However, the underlying mechanisms have been insufficiently investigated. Osteoprotegerin (OPG) and soluble TNF-alpha receptor antagonist ligand (sRANKL) regulate the balance of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Their role in the pathogenesis of osteoporosis in female athletes has not been studied yet. METHODS: We measured OPG and sRANKL in relation to biochemical bone markers [osteocalcin (OC), bone alkaline phosphatase (BAP), serum beta-crosslaps (CTx)] and female sex hormones [estradiol (E2) and luteinizing hormone (LH)] in fastening blood samples from 25 female elite endurance athletes and 25 matched controls. RESULTS: Athletes exhibited significantly higher levels of the bone resorption marker CTx than controls (0.61 +/- 0.26 vs. 0.44 +/- 0.15 ng/ml). OPG and sRANKL were not changed. Subgroup analysis revealed that athletes using oral contraceptives [A-OCC(-)] had significantly higher levels of CTx (0.82 +/- 0.20 vs. 0.50 +/- 0.14 ng/ml), BAP [37.3 (23.2-54.4) U/l vs. 25.2 (20.3-35.6) U/l] and OPG (3.4+/-0.8 vs. 2.7+/-0.8 ng/ml) than controls who did not use oral contraceptives [C-OCC(-)]. While the difference for CTx exceeded the least significant change in this marker by approximately 30%, the differences for the bone formation markers OC and BAP were close to the least significant change. In athletes using oral contraceptives [A-OCC(+)] we found no differences compared to controls. CONCLUSIONS: A-OCC(-) athletes have increased bone turnover with a particular stimulation of bone resorption. The increased bone resorption is not accompanied by a shift of the OPG/sRANKL relationship towards an osteoclastogenic constellation. Since increased bone resorption was not detectable in A-OCC(+) athletes, it can be suggested that OCC use might protect bone health in female athletes.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Echocardiographic findings in strength- and endurance-trained athletes.

Assessment of echocardiographic measurements in athletes should take into account the specific sport and the quantity and quality of training. In addition, values corrected for body dimensions, especially the active body mass, should be used rather than absolute values. All parts of the athlete's heart are enlarged and its performance increases. Highly trained endurance athletes show the most enlarged hearts. Athlete's heart can be observed in athletes of all ages including the young. However, it is rarer than generally assumed. To differentiate between physiological and pathological myocardial changes, the relationship between heart size and ergometric performance as well as the echocardiographically measured ratio between left ventricular (LV) myocardial thickness and volume are useful; the latter remains unchanged, on the whole, in endurance- and strength-trained athletes. Concentric hypertrophy cannot be induced by strength training alone; additional factors, such as hypertension, aortic stenosis, cardiomyopathy or anabolic steroid use can play an important role. When corrected for body dimensions, non-endurance-trained, e.g. strength-trained, athletes have standard heart sizes even if considerable time is devoted to training. Findings in healthy untrained persons with large body dimensions also indicate no significant difference between the increase of echocardiographic measures caused by training and that caused by growth. An LV myocardial thickness of 13mm is seldom exceeded even in the highly endurance-trained or anabolic drug-free strength trained athletes under physiological conditions. However, the echocardiographic differentiation of cardiomyopathy can be difficult if an individual is highly trained and has large body dimensions. In such cases, LV end-diastolic diameter may be up to 66 to 70mm. The upper normal value of LV muscle mass is 170 g/m2 for a physiological heart enlargement. Future areas of investigation should include: adaptative changes; of the right ventricle; differences in the regression of the athlete's heart after cessation of training; the differentiation between echocardiographic changes; in highly endurance-trained or combined strength-endurance-trained persons and pathological changes; the importance of heart size and endurance sports performance; and finally the influence of genetic factors.

Cardiomegaly↗
PubMed1998

Iron supplementation in athletes. Current recommendations.

There is still debate in the literature on whether or not endurance athletes tend to have low iron stores. In this article, we propose that endurance athletes really are at risk of becoming iron deficient due to an imbalance between absorption of dietary iron and exercise-induced iron loss. The purpose of this article is to present a critical review of the literature on iron supplementation in sport. The effect of iron deficiency on performance, its diagnosis and suggestions for treatment are also discussed. Studies of the nutritional status of athletes in various disciplines have shown that male, but not female, athletes clearly achieve the recommended dietary intake of iron (10 to 15 mg/day). This reflects the situation in the general population, with menstruating women being the main risk group for mild iron deficiency, even in developed countries. Whereas the benefit of iron supplementation in athletes with iron deficiency anaemia is well established, this is apparently not true for non-anaemic athletes who have exhausted iron stores alone (prelatent iron deficiency); most of the studies in the literature show no significant changes due to supplementation in the physical capacity of athletes with prelatent iron deficiency. However, the treatment protocols used in some of these studies do not meet the general recommendations for the optimal clinical management of iron deficiency, that is, with respect to adequate daily dosage, mode of administration and treatment period. For future studies, we recommend a prolonged treatment period (> or = 3 months) with standardised conditions of administration (use of a pharmaceutical iron preparation with known high bioavailability and a dosage of ferrous (Fe++) iron 100 mg/day, taken on an empty stomach). Currently, decisions regarding iron supplementation are best made on the basis of taking care of individual athletes. We believe that there are sufficient arguments to support controlled iron supplementation in all athletes with low serum ferritin levels. Firstly, the development of iron deficiency is prevented. Secondly, the nonspecific upregulation of intestinal metal ion absorption is reverted to normal, thus limiting the hyperabsorption of potentially toxic lead and cadmium even in individuals with mild iron deficiency.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Cardiovascular risks to young persons on the athletic field.

Sudden cardiac deaths of young athletes, which are usually associated with physical exertion, continue to achieve high public visibility and generate considerable concern. Despite broad community participation in sports, such catastrophes are uncommon, occurring in about 1/200000 high school athletes per academic year. Various unsuspected congenital cardiovascular diseases are usually responsible; the most common lesions are hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and several congenital coronary artery anomalies. Selected reports suggest that arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia may be a more common cause of these deaths than previously suspected. In some trained athletes with borderline increases in thickness of the left ventricular wall, mild morphologic expression of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy can often be distinguished from the physiologic consequences of athlete's heart by noninvasive clinical assessment and testing. In addition, the recognized cardiovascular risks of the athletic field are now extended to include cardiac arrest resulting from relatively modest, nonpenetrating chest blows produced by projectiles (such as baseballs) or bodily contact in the absence of underlying cardiac disease and without structural injury to the chest wall or heart. These uncommon but usually fatal events seem to result when chest impact occurs precisely during the vulnerable phase of repolarization, and they may be reduced by use of softer baseballs. Preparticipation screening for cardiovascular disease, consisting of standard history and physical examination, is customary practice for most high school and college athletes in the United States. Evidence suggests, however, that the present screening process for cardiovascular disease in high school athletes may be largely inadequate, given the content of the approved screening questionnaires (which serve as guidelines for the process) and the use of examiners with little cardiovascular training. This emphasizes the need for national standardization of preparticipation screening. The recommendations of the 26th Bethesda Conference for disqualification from competitive athletics are now a standard for management decisions when cardiovascular abnormalities are identified in trained athletes.

Cardiovascular Diseases↗
PubMed1999

The female athlete triad: disordered eating, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis.

The Female Athlete Triad is a common clinical entity amongst female athletes. The physician caring for such athletes needs to keep the symptoms of the triad in mind and recognize their potential severity. Still more needs to be done in the areas of prevention, early detection, and early treatment. Education efforts should be focused on junior high and early high school girls because the rapid bone formation during puberty will be necessary to carry them for the rest of their lives. It is also important to note that the female athlete triad should not be used as a reason to disqualify otherwise healthy female athletes from athletic participation. Athletic participation and exercise are good and healthy, if done appropriately. Women have made great strides in the athletic realm, and it would be inappropriate to imply that they should not participate because of the risk or presence of the Female Athlete Triad.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Physical, hematological, and exercise response of collegiate female equestrian athletes.

BACKGROUND: Physiological testing is extensively used to assess current physical status, target strength/deficiencies, and determine predisposition to injury in athletes. No studies exist regarding these issues on equestrian athletes. The purpose of this study was to quantify the physical, hematological, and exercise response of female equestrian athletes in order to provided greater insight into the health fitness of this unique competitor, and to compare results to other better studied sport athletes. METHODS: Following written informed consent, physiological assessments were performed on 24 collegiate female equestrian athletes (23.6+/-1.8 yrs; ht = 161.8+/-5.0 cm; wt = 64.9+/-9.3 kg) to quantify aerobic power (VO2max, VEmax, Timemax), anaerobic power (peak power, total work output, fatigue index), body composition (%BF, LBM), muscular strength (curl-ups, reverse sit-ups, pushups, handgrip strength), blood chemistries, and coronary risk profile. RESULTS: Data indicated that mean (+/-SD) LBM (49.0+/-4.5 kg) and BMI (24.8+/-1.7 wt/ht2) fell within reported athletic norms for females. Percent body fat (24.5+/-6.0%), however, was above average. Mean VO2max (33.9+/-4.5 ml/kg/min), treadmill time (10:06+/-:36 min:sec), and VEmax (90.3+/-16.0 l/min) were lower than predicted values. Observed peak power (5.3+/-0.9 w/kg), total work output (315.9+/-48.1 j/kg), fatigue index (66.9+/-7.9%), and handgrip strength (27.8+/-6.6 kg) were also lower than established norms for young females. Mean curl-up, reverse sit-up, and pushup responses (56.5+/-15.8, 36.6+/-13.2, 32.1+/-10.6, reps/min, respectively) were considered average to above average for this age group. Mean resting blood chemistry values were within normal ranges. When analyzing the blood pressure, body composition, and serum lipid data, results indicate an average to low risk for coronary heart disease in this population. Wide variation in lipid profiles in this group as compared to athletes in other sports is a concern. CONCLUSIONS: Although working with equine poses a constant danger, the lack of adequate physical conditioning of the equestrian may be a contributing factor in the growing number of injuries. When compared to female athletes in other sports, exercise performance was found to be lower. Equestrian athletes need to supplement conventional sport activity with traditional aerobic and anaerobic training regimens.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

[Bone mineral density and exercises: a cross-sectional study on Chinese athletes].

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effect of exercise to osteoporosis by bone mineral density (BMD) measurement of athelets comparing normal individuals in general population. METHODS: BMD of radium, lumber spine, and femoral neck were measured by single photon absorptiometry (SPA), quantitative CT (QCT), and dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) respectively in athletes (n = 162, male 79, female 83) and age matched non-athletes normal population (n = 204, male 91, female 113) in Beijing. RESULTS: BMD of all sites in all age groups of both male and female athletes are significantly higher comparing with that in non-athletic population. This predominance in athletes is even more distinctive in peak bone mass. Peak bone mass of male athletes is significantly higher than that of female athletes. Bone loss with age is less apparent in athletes than in control. However, there is an accelerated decline of BMD in lumber spine and femoral neck in 30-39 year age group in both male and female athletes, which may be due to the wanting of physical exercise. CONCLUSIONS: Long term regular proper exercise started in adolescence may play a very important role in the prevention of osteoporosis by improving peak bone mass and decreasing bone loss.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗
PubMed2003

Weight Concerns, Problem Eating Behaviors, and Problem Drinking Behaviors in Female Collegiate Athletes.

OBJECTIVE: To compare eating behaviors and alcohol drinking habits between 2 groups of female college students: varsity athletes and controls (nonathletes). DESIGN AND SETTING: We obtained descriptive data using an anonymous, self-report survey instrument. The instrument assessed eating habits and behaviors as well as alcohol consumption and drinking behaviors. SUBJECTS: One hundred forty-nine female varsity athletes and 209 female controls (nonathletes) from 2 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I universities. MEASUREMENTS: Data collected included weight and desired weight, meal patterns, methods of gaining or losing weight, details of past or current eating problem, 2-week alcohol consumption quantity and frequency (binge drinking), and problem alcohol behaviors. We used chi-square analysis for nominal data and t tests and multivariate analysis of variance for interval data. RESULTS: Compared with athletes, nonathletes ate fewer meals, and more of them reported feeling that they were too heavy and lied about their weight-control practices. Neither group reported high rates of pathologic behaviors such as vomiting. Nearly 18% of athletes and 26% of controls reported a past or current eating disorder. Athletes did not differ from controls in reported 2-week alcohol consumption, including binge drinking (nearly 50% of both groups). CONCLUSIONS: Self-reported problem drinking and eating behaviors exist in both athletes and controls but not at different rates. This finding may be a result of coach, athletic trainer, and peer-group counseling at these 2 schools or a general trend for lower rates of unhealthy behaviors among female athletes.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2002

Sociocultural Learning Theory in Practice: Implications for Athletic Training Educators.

OBJECTIVE: To discuss cognitive and sociocultural learning theory literature related to athletic training instructional and evaluation strategies while providing support for the application of these practices in the didactic and clinical components of athletic training education programs. DATA SOURCES: We searched Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) and Education Abstracts from 1975-2001 using the key words social cognitive, sociocultural learning theory, constructivism, and athletic training education. Current literature in the fields of educational psychology and athletic training education provides the foundation for applying theory to practice with specific emphasis on the theoretic framework and application of sociocultural learning theory strategies in athletic training education. DATA SYNTHESIS: Athletic training educators must have a strong fundamental knowledge of learning theory and a commitment to incorporate theory into educational practice. We integrate literature from both fields to generate practical strategies for using sociocultural learning theory in athletic training education. CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS: Social cognitive and sociocultural learning theory advocates a constructive, self-regulated, and goal-oriented environment with the student at the center of the educational process. Although a shift exists in athletic training education toward more active instructional strategies with the implementation of competency-based education, many educational environments are still dominated by traditional didactic instructional methods promoting student passivity. As athletic training education programs strive to increase accountability, educators in the field must critically analyze teaching and evaluation methods and integrate new material to ensure that learning is maximized.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2002

National Athletic Trainers' Association Position Statement: Exertional Heat Illnesses.

OBJECTIVE: To present recommendations for the prevention, recognition, and treatment of exertional heat illnesses and to describe the relevant physiology of thermoregulation. BACKGROUND: Certified athletic trainers evaluate and treat heat-related injuries during athletic activity in "safe" and high-risk environments. While the recognition of heat illness has improved, the subtle signs and symptoms associated with heat illness are often overlooked, resulting in more serious problems for affected athletes. The recommendations presented here provide athletic trainers and allied health providers with an integrated scientific and practical approach to the prevention, recognition, and treatment of heat illnesses. These recommendations can be modified based on the environmental conditions of the site, the specific sport, and individual considerations to maximize safety and performance. RECOMMENDATIONS: Certified athletic trainers and other allied health providers should use these recommendations to establish on-site emergency plans for their venues and athletes. The primary goal of athlete safety is addressed through the prevention and recognition of heat-related illnesses and a well-developed plan to evaluate and treat affected athletes. Even with a heat-illness prevention plan that includes medical screening, acclimatization, conditioning, environmental monitoring, and suitable practice adjustments, heat illness can and does occur. Athletic trainers and other allied health providers must be prepared to respond in an expedient manner to alleviate symptoms and minimize morbidity and mortality.

Journal Article↗