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PubMed2002

An environmental assessment of food supply chains: a case study on dessert apples.

The contemporary food system provides consumers with convenience, extensive choice, and the year-round availability of fresh produce. In this paper these achievements are recognized within the context of the associated environmental impacts. While many analyses have considered the energy and material efficiency of various options for food production and packaging, very few studies have investigated the environmental impacts of the transport components of food supply chains. This is surprising, given that the global sourcing of food produce, centralized distribution systems, and shopping by car have become prevalent in recent decades and have contributed to an increase in the distance between producer and consumer or "food miles." In a case study the transport energy consumption is calculated for all possible ways in which dessert apples can be supplied to the UK consumer. The aim is to assess the environmental performance of the predominant fresh produce supply chains and to investigate claims that localized systems are more environmentally efficient. The main criteria used to compare the environmental efficiency in alternative food supply chains are the transport-related fossil-fuel energy consumption and associated carbon dioxide emissions. Analysis of the empirical data shows that transportation is now responsible for a considerable fraction of the total energy consumption in the life cycle of fresh apples, and in most cases exceeds the energy consumed in commercial apple cultivation. By developing local production and marketing systems for fresh products, transport demand can be reduced and many of the environmental impacts associated with existing supply chains can be avoided. The results of the study are then discussed in relation to the wider issues of transport policy, international trade, food security, and product-related environmental information for consumers.

Commerce↗
PubMed2001

Spontaneous loss of a conditionally dispensable chromosome from the Alternaria alternata apple pathotype leads to loss of toxin production and pathogenicity.

The Alternaria alternata apple pathotype causes Alternaria blotch of susceptible apple cultivars through the production of a cyclic peptide, host-specific toxin, AM-toxin. We recently cloned a cyclic peptide synthetase gene, AMT, whose product catalyzes the production of AM-toxin and showed that it resides on chromosomes of 1.8 Mb or less, depending on the A. alternata apple pathotype strain. Reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR, using primers specific to AMT, on laboratory sub-cultured strains previously shown to produce AM-toxin, identified one isolate that did not express the gene. A leaf necrosis bioassay confirmed an AM-toxin-minus phenotype. However, an original isolate of this strain which had not undergone sub-culture gave a positive result by both RTPCR and bioassay. Contour-clamped homogeneous electric field electrophoresis and Southern hybridization demonstrated the loss of a 1.1-Mb chromosome in the non-toxin-producing isolate. Since this chromosome can be entirely lost without affecting growth, but is necessary for pathogenicity, we propose it is a conditionally dispensable chromosome.

Alternaria↗
PubMed2004

No difference in platelet activation or inflammation markers after diets rich or poor in vegetables, berries and apple in healthy subjects.

BACKGROUND: High intake of vegetables and fruits is associated with decreased risk of coronary heart disease. Part of these cardioprotective effects may be mediated via the antithrombotic effects of compounds found in vegetables and fruits, such as flavonoids. AIM OF THE STUDY: To study the effects of high and low intake of vegetables, berries and apple on platelet function and inflammatory markers. METHODS: The study was a randomised, controlled parallel human dietary intervention with healthy female and male volunteers (n = 77, 19-52 y). Nineteen healthy volunteers served as controls. The volunteers consumed one of four strictly controlled isocaloric 6-week diets containing either 810 or 196 g/10 MJ of vegetables, berries and apple and rich either in linoleic acid (11% of energy, en%) or oleic acid (12 en%). Blood and three 24-hour urine samples were collected at the beginning and at the end of the study period for analyses of various markers of platelet function and inflammation. RESULTS: No differences between the treatment groups were seen in platelet count or volume, markers of platelet activation ( ex vivo aggregation to ADP and thrombin receptor activating peptide, protein kinase C activity, urinary 2,3-dinor-thromboxane B2 excretion, plasma P-selectin), plasma intercellular adhesion molecule-1, sensitive C-reactive protein, or antiphospholipid antibodies. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that in healthy volunteers 6-week diets differing markedly in the amounts of vegetables, berries and apple do not differ in their effects on platelets or inflammation.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Non destructive analysis of the wax layer of apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) by means of confocal laser scanning microscopy.

Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) was used to non-destructively analyse the changes in the structure and thickness of the cuticle during storage of apples (Malus domestica Borkh.). Interpretation of the confocal images was performed by comparison with scanning electron microscopy and environmental scanning electron microscopy images. The natural reflectance of the wax and the auto-fluorescence of the underlying cells made it possible with CLSM to distinguish the wax from the underlying layers without any pretreatment of the fruit. The thickness of the consecutive layers (wax, cutin, cells) could be estimated from measurements of the reflection and fluorescence intensities as a function of the number of pixels. The mean wax-layer thickness measured in this way amounted to 2.58 microm, 3.41 microm or 4.14 microm for the cultivars Jonagold, Jonagored and Elstar, respectively. Changes in the wax structure and cells of the same important Belgian apple cultivars as mentioned above were monitored during nine months of storage in ultra low oxygen and after exposure to ambient conditions. The changes in the wax ultrastructure and cell morphology are likely related to water losses and specific protection of the apple cultivars against water losses during storage and shelf life.

Fruit↗
PubMed1999

Construction of a 550 kb BAC contig spanning the genomic region containing the apple scab resistance gene Vf.

A positional cloning project was started in apple with the aim of isolating the Vf resistance gene of Malus floribunda 821. Vf confers resistance against apple scab, the most important disease in apple orchards. A chromosome walk starting from two molecular markers (M18-CAPS and AM19-SCAR) flanking Vf was performed, using a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) library containing inserts of the cultivar Florina, which is heterozygous for Vf. Thirteen BAC clones spanning the region between the two markers were identified in nine chromosome walking steps. The size of the resulting contig is approximately 550 kb. In order to map the Vf region in more detail, we analyzed over 2000 plants from different populations segregating for Vf with markers produced from BAC end sequences. In this way, we were able to restrict the possible location of the Vf gene to a minimum of five clones spanning an interval of approximately 350 kb.

Base Sequence↗
PubMed1999

Metabolic profile of linoleic acid in stored apples: formation of 13(R)-hydroxy-9(Z),11(E)-octadecadienoic acid.

During our ongoing project on the biosynthesis of R-(+)-octane-1,3-diol the metabolism of linoleic acid was investigated in stored apples after injection of [1-14C]-, [9,10,12,13-3H]-,13C18- and unlabeled substrates. After different incubation periods the products were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (MS), high-performance liquid chromatography-MS/MS, and HPLC-radiodetection. Water-soluble compounds and CO2 were the major products whereas 13(R)-hydroxy- and 13-keto-9(Z),11(E)-octadecadienoic acid, 9(S)-hydroxy- and 9-keto-10(E),12(Z)-octadecadienoic acid, and the stereoisomers of the 9,10,13- and 9,12,13-trihydroxyoctadecenoic acids were identified as the major metabolites found in the diethyl ether extracts. Hydroperoxides were not detected. The ratio of 9/13-hydroxy- and 9/13-keto-octadecadienoic acid was 1:4 and 1:10, respectively. Chiral phase HPLC of the methyl ester derivatives showed enantiomeric excesses of 75% (R) and 65% (S) for 13-hydroxy-9(Z),11(E)-octadecadienoic acid and 9-hydroxy-10(E),12(Z)-octadecadienoic acid, respectively. Enzymatically active homogenates from apples were able to convert unlabeled linoleic acid into the metabolites. Radiotracer experiments showed that the transformation products of linoleic acid were converted into (R)-octane-1,3-diol. 13(R)-Hydroxy-9(Z),11(E)-octadecadienoic acid is probably formed in stored apples from 13-hydroperoxy-9(Z),11(E)-octadecadienoic acid. It is possible that the S-enantiomer of the hydroperoxide is primarily degraded by enzymatic side reactions, resulting in an enrichment of the R-enantiomer and thus leading to the formation of 13(R)-hydroxy-9(Z),11(E)-octadecadienoic acid.

Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid↗
PubMed1999

Biosynthesis of R-(+)-octane-1,3-diol. Crucial role of beta-oxidation in the enantioselective generation of 1,3-diols in stored apples.

The biosynthesis of R-octane-1,3-diol and R-5(Z)-octene-1,3-diol, two natural antimicrobial agents in apples and pears, was investigated in stored apples after application of [9,10,12,13-3H]linoleic acid, [9,10,12,13,15,16-3H]linolenic acid, [1-14C]linoleic acid, [U-14C]oleic acid, lipoxygenase-derived metabolites of [9,10,12,13-3H]linoleic acid, 13C18-labeled linoleic acid hydroperoxides, and 2H-labeled octanol derivatives. Analysis of the products and quantification of incorporation and labeling pattern were achieved by high-performance liquid chromatography-radiodetection, capillary gas chromatography (GC)-isotope ratio mass spectrometry, and GC-mass spectrometry analysis. Almost all the applied precursors were partly transformed into R-octane-1,3-diol. Linoleic acid derivatives, still containing the 12,13 cis double bond, and octanol derivatives oxy-functionalized at carbon 3 were the most efficient precursors of the 1,3-diol. The data imply that R-octane-1,3-diol is generated in stored apples in the course of the beta-oxidation from R-3-hydroxy-octanoyl-SCoA originating from 2-cis-octenoyl-SCoA by enoyl-CoA hydratase. In an analogous fashion, R-5(Z)-octene-1,3-diol is formed from the unsaturated intermediate.

Carbon Radioisotopes↗
PubMed1986

Analysis by reverse-phase high-pressure liquid chromatography of phenylisothiocyanate-derivatized 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid in apple extracts.

A rapid and sensitive method for the determination of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) in apple tissues is described. This method is based on the derivatization of ACC with phenylisothiocyanate, and the subsequent separation and quantification of the resulting phenylthiocarbamyl-ACC by reverse-phase high-pressure liquid chromatography. Phenylthiocarbamylation of ACC (and other amino acids) in apple extracts is complete within 20 min at room temperature. After removing solvents and reagent, the phenylthiocarbamyl derivatives are separated on an octadecyl reverse-phase column, eluted with a mixture of acetonitrile and sodium acetate buffer at pH 4.6, and monitored with a uv detector set at 254 nm. An analysis of apple extract can thus be achieved in 23 min and detect quantities as low as 1 pmol. Assays have been done to compare the efficiency of this method with that of a method using an ion-exchange amino acid analyzer and with that of Lizada and Yang's method [(1979), Anal. Biochem. 100, 140-145]. The latter method proved to yield markedly less accurate results than the other two, but the derivatization-HPLC method was preferred because of simplicity of operation and a better separation of ACC.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed1983

The initiation of the effect of commercially-prepared dried apple on dental caries in albino rats.

Group I of Sprague-Dawley rats was fed diet MIT 200 with 25 parts/10(6) F' in the drinking water. Group II received MIT 200, as did Group IV in which the sucrose was replaced by sugars in the same proportions as in dried apple. Group III received MIT 200 with minced dried apple replacing the sucrose. The diet containing commercially-prepared dried apple induced more dental caries than did similar diets containing equivalent amounts of sugars (p less than 0.01).

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Decay study of pesticide residues in apple samples.

A method for monitoring pesticides in apple samples, including Soxhlet extraction, an evaporation step and capillary gas chromatography with nitrogen-phosphorus detection, is applied to a decay study of the carbamate pesticide ethiofencarb. The evaporation step is carried out by a surface nitrogen flow and the recoveries of ethiofencarb measured in standard solutions of ethyl acetate and apple extracts. The results of the decay studies show that ethiofencarb is degraded in the apple peel faster than in the interior of the fruit. The methodology is then applied to decay studies in the laboratory of the organophosphorus pesticides, diclofluanid, fenitrothion and malathion.

Carbamates↗
PubMed1981

Studies on mutagenic constituents of apple brandy and various alcoholic beverages collected in western France, a high incidence area for oesophageal cancer.

Apple brandies, alcoholic spirits produced in the west of France, as well as other types of alcoholic beverage (rums, whiskies, armagnacs, cognacs) were tested for mutagenicity on Salmonella typhimurium TA98 and TA100 in the plate-incorporation assay in the presence or the absence of rat-liver S9. The mutagenic activity of acrolein, gamma-butyrolactone, furfural and glycidol, chemicals usually found in these spirits, was assayed by the same procedure. Glycidol was mutagenic in TA1535 and TA100 without metabolic activation. We found higher and more frequently positive responses in home-made apple brandies than in the other beverages; therefore, further fractionation for isolation of the mutagenic compound(s) was performed by using spinning band column distillation, HPLC and gas chromatography. The fractions contained various types of mutagen, i.e., frameshift and/or base-pair substitution mutagens; some required metabolic activation and others did not in either the alcoholic, aqueous or non-volatile fractions. The results indicate that the high incidence of oesophageal cancer correlated with the alcoholic consumption in these areas might be at least partially attributable to the presence of mutagens in apple brandies.

Alcoholic Beverages↗
PubMed2005

An ergonomic intervention to reduce back strain among apple harvest workers in New York State.

The impact of modifications to the apple picking bucket on common picking postures, self-reported comfort, ease of use, and speed of harvest were measured. Fourteen apple pickers wore an intervention hip belt, were interviewed and measured using posture-activities-tools-handling methodology. The use of hip belt did not significantly alter time spent in various postures. 78.6% of interviewed workers preferred the modified bag, 71.4% noted a difference in the back, neck, or shoulder, while 64.3% said regular use of modified bag would slow their work. Major themes in worker comments are discussed. The hip belt modification to apple harvest bag seems generally acceptable to workers, but needs further development to overcome unintended effects. Although work sampling demonstrates that the bag does not affect work practices, workers appear somewhat concerned that productivity will be negatively impacted. Further training of workers in the use and potential benefits of bag are needed.

Agricultural Workers' Diseases↗
PubMed2006

Comparison of Prussian blue and apple-pectin efficacy on 137Cs decorporation in rats.

Cesium-137 (137Cs) is one of the most important nuclear fission elements that contaminated the environment after the explosion of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine (1986). The aim of the study was to compare the efficacy of two chelating agent, Prussian blue and apple-pectin on 137cesium decorporation in rats. Rats were intravenously injected with a solution of 137cesium (5 kBq per rat). Chelating agents, Prussian blue or apple-pectin were given immediately after Cs contamination and during 11 days by addition of each chelating agent in drinking water at a concentration corresponding to 400 mg kg(-1) day(-1). Efficiency was evaluated 11 days after contamination (at the end of treatment) through their ability to promote Cs excretion and to reduce the radionuclide accumulation in some retention compartments (blood, liver, kidneys, spleen, skeleton and in the remaining carcass). In these conditions after treatment with Prussian blue a fivefold increase in fecal excretion of Cs was observed and was associated with a reduction in the radionuclide retention in the main organs measured. In contrast, no significant differences were observed between untreated rats and rats treated with apple-pectin. These observations were discussed in terms of ability of pectins to bind Cs and compared to recently published results obtained after treatment of Cs-contaminated children with this chelate.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Assessing plant response to ambient ozone: growth of young apple trees in open-top chambers and corresponding ambient air plots.

Open-top chambers (OTCs) and corresponding ambient air plots (AA) were used to assess the impact of ambient ozone on growth of newly planted apple trees at the Montague Field research center in Amherst, MA. Two-year-old apple trees (Malus domestica Borkh 'Rogers Red McIntosh') were planted in the ground in circular plots. Four of the plots were enclosed with OTCs where incoming air was charcoal-filtered (CF); four were enclosed with OTCs where incoming air was not charcoal-filtered (NF) and four were not enclosed, allowing access to ambient air conditions (AA). Conditions in both CF and NF OTCs resulted in increased tree growth and changed incidence of disease and arthropod pests, compared to trees in AA. As a result, we were not able to use the OTC method to assess the impact of ambient ozone on growth of young apple trees in Amherst, MA.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed2006

Distribution of soil arsenic species, lead and arsenic bound to humic acid molar mass fractions in a contaminated apple orchard.

Excessive application of lead arsenate pesticides in apple orchards during the early 1900s has led to the accumulation of lead and arsenic in these soils. Lead and arsenic bound to soil humic acids (HA) and soil arsenic species in a western Massachusetts apple orchard was investigated. The metal-humate binding profiles of Pb and As were analyzed with size exclusion chromatography-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SEC-ICP-MS). It was observed that both Pb and As bind "tightly" to soil HA molar mass fractions. The surface soils of the apple orchard contained a ratio of about 14:1 of water soluble As (V) to As (III), while mono-methyl (MMA) and di-methyl arsenic (DMA) were not detectable. The control soil contained comparatively very low levels of As (III) and As (V). The analysis of soil core samples demonstrated that As (III) and As (V) species are confined to the top 20 cm of the soil.

Adsorption↗
PubMed2006

Construction of a contig of BAC clones spanning the region of the apple scab avirulence gene AvrVg.

The ascomycete Venturia inaequalis, causal pathogen of apple scab, underlies a gene-for-gene relationship with its host plant apple (Malus spp.). 'Golden Delicious', one of the most common cultivated apples in the world, carries the ephemeral resistance gene Vg. Avirulence gene AvrVg, matching resistance gene Vg has recently been mapped on the V. inaequalis genome. In this paper, we present the construction of a BAC library from a V. inaequalis AvrVg isolate. The library is composed of 7680 clones, with an average insert size of 80kb. By hybridization, it has been estimated that the library contains six haploid genome equivalents. Thus the V. inaequalis genome can be predicted to be approximately 100Mb in size. A chromosome walk, starting from the marker VirQ5 co-segregating with AvrVg, has been performed using the BAC library. Twelve BAC clones were identified during four steps of the chromosome walking. The size of the resulting contig is approximately 330kb.

Ascomycota↗
PubMed2004

Effect of treatment with Trichoderma harzianum Rifai formulated in invert emulsion on postharvest decay of apple blue mold.

Conidia of Trichoderma harzianum were formulated in invert emulsion (water-in-oil type) at a concentration of 6.0 x 10(7) conidia/ml of the formulation. Treatments with conidia in the formulated emulsion and conidia in sterile distilled water were conducted to assess the effect on Penicillium expansum Link inoculated on apple fruits. Comparisons were made with control treatments of an uninoculated emulsion and uninoculated distilled water. The T. harzianum-containing emulsion significantly (P <or= 0.05) reduced the decay-lesion diameter compared to the T. harzianum-containing water or the uninoculated emulsion or distilled water controls (17.5, 25.7, 34.0, and 34.2 mm, respectively). Significant differences (P <or= 0.05) were also obtained between means of percent reduction in decay-lesion diameter relative to sterile distilled water control in the treatments with formulated and nonformulated conidia and control with uninoculated invert emulsion (48.8%, 24.8%, and 0.6%, respectively). Mean time period needed for sporulation of P. expansum was significantly (P <or= 0.05) increased when the treatments with formulated T. harzianum conidia were applied in comparison with the other types of treatments (14.2 versus 12.2, 9.0, and 8.8 days, respectively, for the other treatments). However, no significant differences (P <or= 0.05) were obtained in means of decay-lesion diameter or in means of time period needed for sporulation of P. expansum in the control treatments (uninoculated invert emulsion versus sterile distilled water). This indicates that the effect of the formulation ingredients on decay-lesion development of P. expansum or its sporulation was not significant. A significant (P <or= 0.05) long period of protection from P. expansum infection (up to 2 months) was also obtained when unwounded apple fruits were dipped for 30-s period in formulated T. harzianum conidia before being inoculated by P. expansum compared to the wounded fruits. This indicates the importance of the latter type of treatment in protecting apple fruits from blue mold infection for long time at postharvest stage without refrigeration.

Antibiosis↗
PubMed2006

Real-time PCR quantification of the AM-toxin gene and HPLC qualification of toxigenic metabolites from Alternaria species from apples.

Some Alternaria species are able to produce plant pathogenic as well as toxic metabolites. In both agriculture and the food industry it is important know if toxigenic Alternaria are present to rapidly employ the correct corrective actions. The purpose of this work was to establish a real-time PCR method, which can detect and quantify apple pathogenic and toxigenic Alternaria. An AM-toxin I primer set, which could recognize Alternaria DNA only, was designed by using primers complementary to the AM-toxin I gene. The method could detect small amounts of DNA (4 pg) and still obtain a large dynamic range (4 decades) without interference from apple material. Eight Alternaria isolates were analyzed for the presence of AM-toxin I gene and their production of secondary metabolites. Then analyses showed that all eight isolates contained the AM toxin gene and were able to produce the plant pathogenic tentoxin in addition to AM toxin I. The analyses also showed the production of tenuazonic acid, alternariols, Altenuene, altenusin and/or altertoxin I in pure culture. Analyses of inoculated apples showed that both the AM-toxin gene and alternariol monomethyl ether could be detected. Morphological analyses suggested that the eight Alternaria strains, though they all carried the AM toxin genes, probably belong to different but closely related un-described Alternaria taxa in the A. tenuissima species-group based on morphological and chemical differences.

Alternaria↗