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Marine turtle fibropapillomatosis is associated with chelonid fibropapilloma-associated herpesvirus (C-FP-HV) and commonly affects juvenile green turtles (Chelonia mydas) in neritic (nearshore) habitats. Green turtles have a complex life history, characterized by shifts in trophic level as well as habitat during ontogeny. Thus, several hypotheses can be proposed for when turtles become infected with C-FP-HV. They may acquire the virus at an early stage in the life cycle, including prenatal, hatchling, or the posthatchling pelagic stages. Alternatively, they may become infected later in life after they emigrate from the open ocean to neritic habitats. Each hypothesis generates predictions about the spatial distribution of genetic variants of C-FP-HV among nearshore sites within a region. Sequencing of polymerase chain reaction-amplified viral DNA from fibropapillomas of individual turtles was used to genotype the viral variants present in marine turtles from different coastal areas in Florida. We found four distinct virus variants (A, B, C, and D), two of which (A and C) were present in multiple turtle species. Green turtles in Florida were infected with variants A, B, and C. Variant A was found in green turtles from all three areas. Outside the Indian River Lagoon, variant A was most commonly detected and was found in >94% of diseased green turtles and 70% of loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) in the Florida Bay/Florida Keys. However, in the Indian River Lagoon, variant B was found in >94% of affected green turtles. Variant B was not detected outside of the Indian River system. Chi-square analysis strongly supported (P<0.001) an association between viral variant distribution in green turtles and location. On the basis of the assumption that juvenile green turtles found in Florida's west-central coast, Florida Keys, and Indian River Lagoon areas represented recruits from a mixed pelagic population, we expected that the distribution of viral variants in these turtles would be relatively homogeneous among locations; this would correspond to infection in the earlier phases of their life cycle. The heterogeneous distribution of viral variants in green turtle tumors from different Florida coastal locations strongly supports the hypothesis that, during epizootics, turtles are infected with specific C-FP-HV variants after they arrive as juveniles in neritic habitats. The conclusion that C-FP-HV is acquired after turtles recruit to nearshore habitats should help focus further research efforts on understanding the mechanisms of transmission and raises the possibility that the effect of fibropapillomatosis on turtle populations might be reduced by management strategies designed to break the cycle of transmission in these locations.
We examined data collected by the US Sea Turtle Stranding and Salvage Network on 4,328 green turtles (Chelonia mydas) found dead or debilitated (i.e., stranded) in the eastern half of the USA from Massachusetts to Texas during the period extending from 1980 to 1998. Fibropapillomatosis (FP) was reported only on green turtles in the southern half of Florida (south of 29 degrees N latitude). Within this region, 22.6% (682/3,016) of the turtles had tumors. Fibropapillomatosis was more prevalent in turtles found along the western (Gulf) coast of Florida (51.9%) than in turtles found along the eastern (Atlantic) coast of Florida (11.9%) and was more prevalent in turtles found in inshore areas (38.9%) than in turtles found in offshore areas (14.6%). A high prevalence of FP corresponded to coastal waters characterized by habitat degradation and pollution, a large extent of shallow-water area, and low wave energy, supporting speculation that one or more of these factors could serve as an environmental cofactor in the expression of FP. A high prevalence of FP did not correspond to high-density green turtle assemblages. Turtles with tumors were found most commonly during the fall and winter months, and the occurrence of tumors was most common in turtles of intermediate size (40-70-cm curved carapace length). Stranded green turtles with tumors were more likely to be emaciated or entangled in fishing line and less likely to have propeller wounds than were stranded green turtles without tumors. Turtles with and without tumors were equally likely to show evidence of a shark attack. The percent occurrence of tumors in stranded green turtles increased from approximately 10% in the early 1980s to over 30% in the late 1990s. Fibropapillomatosis was first documented in southernmost Florida in the late 1930s and spread throughout the southern half of Florida and the Caribbean during the mid-1980s. Because green turtles living in south Florida are known to move throughout much of the Caribbean, but are not known to move to other parts of the USA or to Bermuda, the spread and current distribution of FP in the western Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean can be explained by assuming FP is caused by an infectious agent that first appeared in southern Florida. Aberrant movements of captive-reared turtles or of turtles that are released into areas where they were not originally found could spread FP beyond its current distribution.
Functional hemostatic pathways are critical for the survival of all vertebrates and have been evolving for more than 400 million years. The overwhelming majority of studies of hemostasis in vertebrates have focused on mammals with very sparse attention paid to reptiles. There have been virtually no studies of the coagulation pathway in sea turtles whose ancestors date back to the Jurassic period. Sea turtles are often exposed to rapidly altered environmental conditions during diving periods. This may reduce their blood pH during prolonged hypoxic dives. This report demonstrates that five species of turtles possess only one branch of the mammalian coagulation pathway, the extrinsic pathway. Mixing studies of turtle plasmas with human factor-deficient plasmas indicate that the intrinsic pathway factors VIII and IX are present in turtle plasma. These two factors may play a significant role in supporting the extrinsic pathway by feedback loops. The intrinsic factors, XI and XII are not detected which would account for the inability of reagents to induce coagulation via the intrinsic pathway in vitro. The analysis of two turtle factors, factor II (prothrombin) and factor X, demonstrates that they are antigenically/functionally similar to the corresponding human factors. The turtle coagulation pathway responds differentially to both pH and temperature relative to each turtle species and relative to human samples. The coagulation time (prothrombin time) increases as the temperature decreases between 37 and 15 degrees C. The increased time follows a linear relationship, with similar slopes for loggerhead, Kemps ridley and hawksbill turtles as well as for human samples. Leatherback turtle samples show a dramatic nonlinear increased time below 23 degrees C, and green turtle sample responses were similar but less dramatic. All samples also showed increased prothrombin times as the pH decreased from 7.8 to 6.4, except for three turtle species. The prothrombin times decreased, to varying extents, in a linear fashion relative to reduced pH with the rate of change greatest in leatherbacks>green>>loggerhead turtles. All studies were conducted with reagents developed for human samples which would impact on the quantitative results with the turtle samples, but are not likely to alter the qualitative results. These comparative studies of the coagulation pathway in sea turtles and humans could enhance our knowledge of structure/function relationships and evolution of coagulation factors.
Monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) were developed against the known immunoglobulin classes of the green turtle, Chelonia mydas. Plasma protein fractions enriched for 5.7S IgY, 7S IgY, and IgM turtle immunoglobulins were used to immunize Balb/c mice for hybridoma production and for hybridoma screening. Fifteen hybridomas produced Mabs with specificity for turtle immunoglobulins and for affinity purified dinitrophenol (DNP) specific turtle antibodies. Three Mabs specific for either turtle 5.7S IgY heavy chain (HL814), 7S IgY heavy chain (HL857), or IgM heavy chain (HL846) were purified and used in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to measure antibody responses in two turtles immunized with 2,4-dinitrophenylated bovine serum albumin (DNP-BSA) over a 10 month period. In both turtles the 7S IgY antibody response developed within 5 weeks of the first inoculation and remained high over the following 9 months. The 5.7S IgY antibody response was detected in one turtle at 3-4 months and in the other at 8 months, and reached high levels in both individuals by 10 months. The IgM responses were difficult to interpret. One turtle had pre-inoculation anti-DNP IgM antibody in its plasma and the other developed only a weak, transient response at about 4 months. The class-specific antibody activity in immune turtle plasma could be strongly inhibited by soluble DNP or by rabbit anti-DNP specific antiserum, showing that these antibody responses were directed predominantly to the DNP hapten on the DNP-BSA antigen. Antibody responses to the BSA carrier could not be detected in either turtle over the course of the immunization. Mab HL814, specific for an epitope on the 5.7S green turtle immunoglobulin heavy chain, will be useful for characterizing the molecular relationships of 5.7S, 7S and IgM heavy chains and the role of 5.7S antibody in humoral immunity in this species. All anti-turtle Ig Mabs were screened against the plasma globulins of Loggerhead (Caretta caretta), Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), Kemp's Ridley (Lepidochelys kempi), Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), and Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea). While the Mabs specific for IgM and 5.7S IgY reacted only with the green turtle, two Mabs specific for light chain reacted with all species except the leatherback, and nine mabs specific for 7S IgY heavy chain reacted with all five species. Thus, these Mabs may be useful for immunodiagnostic applications in these endangered species as well.
Blood biochemical parameters were compared for green turtles (Chelonia mydas) with and without green turtle fibropapillomatosis (GTFP) from both captive and wild populations in Hawaii (USA) and from a captive population from California (USA), during the period between 1994 and 1996. Statistical analysis did not detect an influence of disease in any of the blood parameters for free-ranging turtles; however, captive turtles in Hawaii with GTFP had significantly higher levels of alkaline phosphatase and significantly lower levels of lactate compared to non-tumored captive turtles. Multivariate analysis found that biochemical profiles could be used to accurately predict if turtles were healthy or afflicted with GTFP. Discriminant function analysis correctly classified turtles as being with or without GTFP in 89% of cases, suggesting that diseased animals had a distinct signature of plasma biochemistries. Measurements of blood parameters identified numerous differences between captive and wild green turtles in Hawaii. Levels of corticosterone, lactate, triglyceride, glucose, and calcium were significantly higher in wild green turtles as compared to captive turtles, while uric acid levels were significantly lower in wild turtles as compared to captive turtles. Additionally, turtles from Sea World of California (San Diego, California, USA), which had been in captivity the longest, had higher levels of alanine aminotransferase and triglycerides as compared to nearly all other groups. Differences in diet, sampling methods, environmental conditions, and turtle size, help to interpret these results.
Dietary lipids containing equal portions of soybean oil and fish oil were fed to juvenile Chinese soft-shelled turtle, Pelodiscus sinensis, at supplementation level of 0 to 15% for 8 weeks. Tissue fat contents of turtles increased when dietary lipid concentration increased. Fatty acid profiles for turtles fed diets supplemented with 6% or higher levels of lipids were similar to those in dietary lipids. On absolute value basis, fatty acids of 14-, 16-, and 18-carbons in muscle of turtles fed diet without lipid supplementation were higher than those in the initial turtle muscle. Among them, C16:1 and C18:1 was approximately 4 and 2 fold higher, respectively, than that of the initial turtles. By contrast, absolute amounts of C20:5 and C22:6 in muscle of turtles fed diet without lipid supplementation were slightly less than those in the initial turtles. For turtles fed lipid supplemented diets, tissue C20:5 and C22:6, however, increased when dietary lipid level increased. These results suggest that soft-shelled turtles are capable of synthesizing fatty acids up to 18 carbons from other nutrients and that they may have limited or no ability to synthesize highly unsaturated fatty acids. Lipid peroxidation measured by thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances in tissues of turtles fed 12% and 15% lipids was greater (p<0.05) than that in turtles fed 3% to 9% lipids. This could be due to high lipid and unsaturated fatty acid content in these tissues. On lipid basis, lipid peroxidation in turtles fed diet without lipid supplementation was the highest among all groups suggesting the existence of antioxidant factors in the dietary lipids.
Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) have been measured in blood of humans and wildlife and are considered globally distributed contaminants. We examined 12 PFCs in the plasma of 73 loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) and 6 Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) captured from inshore waters of Core Sound, North Carolina (NC), and offshore waters of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida (SC-FL). Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) were the dominant compounds, with respective mean concentrations of 11.0 ng/mL and 3.20 ng/mL for loggerhead turtles and 39.4 ng/mL and 3.57 ng/mL for Kemp's ridley turtles. Mean PFOS concentrations were 2- to 12-fold higher than typical mean sigmaPCB concentrations (approximately 5 ng/g wet mass) measured previously in sea turtle blood. More than 79% of the samples had detectable levels of perfluorocarboxylates (PFCAs) with 8-12 carbons, whereas only 17% or less of samples had detectable levels of PFCAs with 6 or 7 carbons. No samples had detectable levels of PFCAs with 4 or 5 carbons. In loggerhead turtles, sigmaPFC concentrations were not influenced by sex (p > 0.05), but were higher in turtles captured from inshore waters of NC than in turtles from offshore waters of SC-FL (p = 0.009). A backward stepwise multiple regression model showed that sigmaPFC concentrations were (1) significantly higher in Kemp's ridley turtles than loggerhead turtles (p < 0.0001), (2) higher in larger turtles (p = 0.018; carapace length used as a proxy for age), and (3) higher in turtles captured toward the north (p = 0.006). These findings suggest that bioaccumulation of PFCs in sea turtles is influenced by species, age, and habitat.
Hatchlings of the painted turtle (Chrysemys picta) commonly hibernate in their shallow, natal nests. Survival at temperatures below the limit of freeze tolerance (approximately -4 degrees C) apparently depends on their ability to remain supercooled, and, whereas previous studies have reported that supercooling capacity improves markedly with cold acclimation, the mechanistic basis for this change is incompletely understood. We report that the crystallization temperature (T(c)) of recently hatched (summer) turtles acclimated to 22 degrees C and reared on a substratum of vermiculite or nesting soil was approximately 5 degrees C higher than the T(c) determined for turtles acclimated to 4 degrees C and tested in winter. This increase in supercooling capacity coincided with elimination of substratum (and, in fewer cases, eggshell) that the hatchlings had ingested; however, this association was not necessarily causal because turtles reared on a paper-covered substratum did not ingest exogenous matter but nevertheless showed a similar increase in supercooling capacity. Our results for turtles reared on paper revealed that seasonal development of supercooling capacity fundamentally requires elimination of ice-nucleating agents (INA) of endogenous origin: summer turtles, but not winter turtles, produced feces (perhaps derived from residual yolk) that expressed ice-nucleating activity. Ingestion of vermiculite or eggshell, which had modest ice-nucleating activity, had no effect on the T(c), whereas ingestion of nesting soil, which contained two classes of potent INA, markedly reduced the supercooling capacity of summer turtles. This effect persisted long after the turtles had purged their guts of soil particles, because the T(c) of winter turtles reared on nesting soil (mean +/- S.E.M.=-11.6+/-1.4 degrees C) was approximately 6 degrees C higher than the T(c) of winter turtles reared on vermiculite or paper. Experiments in which winter turtles were fed INA commonly found in nesting soil showed that water-soluble, organic agents can remain fully active for at least one month. Such INA may account for the limited supercooling capacity (T(c) approximately -7.5 degrees C) we found in turtles overwintering in natural nests and may therefore pose a formidable challenge to the winter survival of hatchling C. picta.
We submerged hatchling western painted turtles Chrysemys picta Schneider, snapping turtles Chelydra serpentina L. and map turtles Graptemys geographica Le Sueur in normoxic and anoxic water at 3 degrees C. Periodically, turtles were removed and whole-body [lactate] and [glycogen] were measured along with relative shell mass, shell water, and shell ash. We analyzed the shell for [Na+], [K+], total calcium, total magnesium, Pi and total CO2. All three species were able to tolerate long-term submergence in normoxic water without accumulating any lactate, indicating sufficient extrapulmonary O2 extraction to remain aerobic even after 150 days. Survival in anoxic water was 15 days in map turtles, 30 days in snapping turtles, and 40 days in painted turtles. Survival of hatchlings was only about one third the life of their adult conspecifics in anoxic water. Much of the decrease in survival was attributable to a dramatically lower shell-bone content (44% ash in adult painted turtles vs. 3% ash in hatchlings of all three species) and a smaller buffer content of bone (1.3 mmol g(-1) CO2 in adult painted turtles vs. 0.13-0.23 mmol g(-1) CO2 in hatchlings of the three species). The reduced survivability of turtle hatchlings in anoxic water requires that hatchlings either avoid aquatic hibernacula that may become severely hypoxic or anoxic (snapping turtles), or overwinter terrestrially (painted turtles and map turtles).
OBJECTIVE: To describe the gross cross-sectional anatomy of green turtles (Chelonia mydas) and evaluate magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for detection of internal tumors in green turtles with cutaneous fibropapillomatosis. DESIGN: Prospective study. ANIMALS: 3 dead green turtles, 1 healthy green turtle, and 8 green turtles with cutaneous fibropapillomatosis. PROCEDURES: Gross cross-sectional anatomy of a dead turtle was described. Each live turtle underwent a complete physical examination, and dorsoventral whole-body survey radiographic views were obtained. Magnetic resonance imaging was performed in dorsal and transverse planes. Radiographs and magnetic resonance images were examined for evidence of internal nodules. Results were compared with necropsy findings in 5 of 8 turtles. RESULTS: Nodules in the lungs of 2 turtles were detected via radiography, whereas pulmonary nodules were detected in 5 turtles via MRI. No other visceral nodules were detected via radiography; however, masses in the stomach and adjacent to the bladder and kidneys were detected in 1 turtle via MRI. Other extrapulmonary abnormalities observed at necropsy were not detected on MR images. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: MRI may be valuable for detection of internal tumors in green turtles with cutaneous fibropapillomatosis. Nodules were more apparent in the lungs than in other organs. Results of MRI may serve as prognostic indicators for sea turtles undergoing assessment, treatment, and rehabilitation. Clinical application may be limited by cost and availability of MRI technology.
We necropsied 255 stranded green turtles Chelonia mydas with fibropapillomatosis (FP) from the Hawaiian Islands, North Pacific, from August 1993 through May 2003. Of these, 214 (84 %) were euthanized due to advanced FP and the remainder were found dead in fresh condition. Turtles were assigned a standardized tumor severity score ranging from 1 (lightly tumored) to 3 (heavily tumored). Tumors were counted and measured and categorized as external, oral, or internal and tissues evaluated by light microscopy. Turtles in tumor score 2 and 3 categories predominated, and tumor score 3 turtles were significantly larger than the other 2 categories. More juveniles stranded than subadults or adults. Total cross-sectional area of tumors increased significantly with straight carapace length (SCL). Frequency distribution of total number of external tumors per turtle was significantly skewed to the right, and there were significantly more tumors at the front than rear of turtles. Eighty percent of turtles had oral tumors, and 51% of turtles with oral tumors had tumors in the glottis. Thirty-nine percent of turtles had internal tumors, most of them in the lung, kidney and heart. Fibromas predominated in lung, kidney and musculoskeletal system whereas myxofibromas were more common in intestines and spleen. Fibrosarcomas of low-grade malignancy were most frequent in the heart, and heart tumors had a predilection for the right atrium. Turtles with FP had significant additional complications including inflammation with vascular flukes, bacterial infections, poor body condition, and necrosis of salt gland. Turtles with oral tumors were more likely to have secondary complications such as pneumonia. Most turtles came from the island of Oahu (74%) followed by Maui (20 %), Hawaii, Molokai, and Lanai (<3 % each). On Oahu, significantly more turtles we necropsied stranded along the northwestern and northeastern shores.
Thyroid hormone metabolism by 5'-monodeiodinase enzymes (5'MD) was characterized in peripheral tissues of the turtle, Trachemys scripta, and compared with activity measured in the rat. Based on differences in pH dependence, sensitivity to inhibitors, substrate affinity, and cofactor requirements, at least two types of enzyme activities have been identified in the turtle. A 5'MD activity was measured in liver and kidney microsomal fractions that exhibits inhibition by 2n-propyl-6-thiouracil (PTU), a higher affinity for rT3 (Km = 2 microM) than for T4 (Km = 6.5 microM), a low cofactor dependence, and a high pH optimum for T4 metabolism. The characteristics of this turtle low affinity T4 activity correspond to the mammalian type I monodeiodinase. A second type of monodeiodinase (MD) activity that is less sensitive to PTU, has a higher affinity for T4 (Km = 1 nM), a higher cofactor requirement, and a lower pH optimum was colocalized with the first form. Both turtle MD activities remain active over a range of temperatures, allowing for activity at the preferred body temperature of this species (28 to 37 degrees C compared to the 37 degrees C optimum in the rat). Based on limited comparative data of MD systems from several fish and birds, the turtle most closely resembles avian species. Like birds, turtles possess a mammalian-like type I activity and have colocalized MD forms in the liver. However, the second turtle MD form (MDH) is not comparable to the mammalian or avian MDII-like activity. Analysis of the deiodinase products from both turtle MDs by high-performance liquid chromatography confirmed that the putative turtle MDI produces T3 from T4 as expected. The MDH produces rT3 from T4 as does the mammalian type III form, but MDH has a wider tissue distribution (kidney, liver, pancreas, heart, ovary, and brain) and distinct enzyme kinetics. Moreover, MDH activity in the turtle kidney is 100-fold higher than in the liver, indicating that the kidney may play a critical role in the metabolism of thyroid hormones in the turtle; this high renal activity distinguishes the turtle from all other vertebrates studied.
For many decades it has been accepted that marine turtle hatchlings from the same nest generally emerge from the sand together. However, for loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) nesting on the Greek Island of Kefalonia, a more asynchronous pattern of emergence has been documented. By placing temperature loggers at the top and bottom of nests laid on Kefalonia during 1998, we examined whether this asynchronous emergence was related to the thermal conditions within nests. Pronounced thermal variation existed not only between, but also within, individual nests. These within-nest temperature differences were related to the patterns of hatchling emergence, with hatchlings from nests displaying large thermal ranges emerging over a longer time-scale than those characterised by more uniform temperatures. In many egg-laying animals, parental care of the offspring may continue while the eggs are incubating and also after they have hatched. Consequently, the importance of the nest site for determining incubation conditions may be reduced since the parents themselves may alter the local environment. By contrast, in marine turtles, parental care ceases once the eggs have been laid and the nest site covered. The positioning of the nest site, in both space and time, may therefore have profound effects for marine turtles by affecting, for example, the survival of the eggs and hatchlings as well as their sex (Janzen and Paukstis 1991). During incubation, sea turtle embryos grow from a few cells at oviposition to a self-sufficient organism at hatching some 50-80 days later (Ackerman 1997). After hatching, the young turtles dig up through the sand and emerge typically en masse at the surface 1-7 nights later, with a number of stragglers following over the next few nights (Christens 1990). This contrasts with the frequently observed pattern of hatching asynchrony in birds. It has been suggested that the cause of mass emergence in turtles is that eggs within a clutch are fertilised within a short period of time and then, when thermal conditions within the nest are uniform, develop at very similar rates and hence hatch and emerge together (Porter 1972). As a corollary of this idea, it would be predicted that when there are pronounced within-nest thermal gradients, development rates of siblings will be different and hence asynchronous hatching and emergence might occur. While it may be energetically beneficial for hatchlings to emerge in a group (Carr and Hirth 1961), if the extent of hatching asynchrony is marked then there may be severe costs for individuals if they wait for all their siblings to hatch before attempting to dig out of the sand (Hays and Speakman 1992). Under such conditions, the protracted emergence of small groups of hatchlings over several nights may be favoured. Examination of the literature suggests that emergence asynchrony may be more widespread than generally considered. For example, Witherington et al. (1990) described loggerhead turtle hatchlings (Caretta caretta) emerging over 4 days in Florida; for green turtles (Chelonia mydas), Hendrickson (1958) documented that nests in Malaysia and Sarawak produced hatchlings for up to 8 days; whilst Diamond (1976) found that hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) nests on Cousin Island, Seychelles, were active for up to 4 days. Similarly, on the Greek Island of Kefalonia, we have shown that emergence from individual loggerhead turtle nests may occur on up to 11 nights (Hays and Speakman 1992). It is logical to suppose that asynchronous emergence relates to thermal gradients within nests, since the incubation duration of sea turtle eggs is related to temperature, with eggs hatching quicker when the temperature is higher. Here we test this hypothesis by measuring thermal variations within loggerhead turtle nests and comparing these variations to the patterns of hatchling emergence.
Lipid composition of eggs and hatchlings was studied in painted, snapping and Blanding's turtles from western Nebraska. The average total lipid proportions of the egg yolk, post-embryonic yolk and hatchling soma dry masses were high in painted turtles (29.80%, 42.16% and 14.18%, respectively) relative to snapping and Blanding's turtles (egg yolk < 14%, postembryonic yolk < 17%, hatchling soma < 2%). The proportion of total egg yolk lipid used during development varied among species (painted turtles, x = 45.4%; snapping turtles, x = 68.9%; Blanding's turtles, x = 86.6%). Total lipid data are consistent with patterns reported for turtle species whose hatchlings overwinter in the nest (e.g., painted turtles) vs those whose hatchlings emerge in the fall (e.g., snapping and Blanding's turtles). In all species, the total lipid quantity of egg and hatchling components was primarily triacylglycerol (> 63%), an energy storage form. Predominant triacylglycerol fatty acids in eggs and hatchlings were 16:0, 16:1 and 18:1, and concentration changes of some yolk fatty acids occurred during development. The average phospholipid (a membrane form) quantity of the egg and hatchling components was relatively low in painted turtles (< 2% of the total lipid). In snapping and Blanding's turtles, the relatively large phospholipid proportion of the post-embryonic yolks (approximately 7%) could potentially contribute more to post-embryonic growth in these species than the phospholipids of painted turtle post-embryonic yolks.
OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence and manifestations of fibropapillomatosis in green turtles in Indonesia, to identify any relationship between fibropapillomatosis and concurrent parasitic infection, to ascertain the effect of fibropapillomatosis on health, and to examine whether environment might have an effect on the prevalence of fibropapillomatosis. PROCEDURE: 4407 green turtles (Chelonia mydas) and 401 hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) were examined. The occurrence of fibropapillomatosis was correlated with sex, maturity, curved carapace length, body weight/curved carapace length ratio, the number and distribution of tumours on the skin, parasite burdens, some haematological variables and the region of capture. RESULTS: Fibropapillomatosis was seen only in green turtles, and the overall prevalence in these was 21.5%. This prevalence increased with the curved carapace length up to 85 cm. The average number of tumours per affected turtle was 5 +/- SD 4.1 (range, 1 to 29), and was negatively correlated with the body weight/curved carapace length ratio (rs = -0.8; P = 0.001). The red blood cell count in turtles with fibropapilloma was lower than in non-fibropapilloma turtles captured and examined at the same time (P = 0.001). The prevalence of fibropapilloma in turtles captured near densely populated, industrial regions (26.3%) was greater than in turtles from sparsely populated areas (17.7%). CONCLUSION: Fibropapillomatosis in green sea turtles in Indonesia is of moderate occurrence: young mature turtles (curved carapace length = 85 cm) are most frequently affected. Fibropapilloma adversely affects health of turtles. Fluke infestation seems not to be a causal factor, but viral infection, perhaps with concurrent stress of environmental origin, seems likely.