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PubMed2007

Aging affects motor learning but not savings at transfer of learning.

Two important components of skill learning are the learning process itself (motor acquisition) and the ability to transfer what has been learned to new task variants (motor transfer). Many studies have documented age-related declines in the ability to learn new manual motor skills. In this study, I tested whether the degree of savings at transfer of learning is similarly affected by advancing age. Young and older adults made aiming movements with a joystick to hit targets presented on a computer screen, with real-time feedback display of their movement. They adapted to three different rotations of the feedback display in a sequential fashion, with return to the normal feedback display between each. Adaptation performance was better when it was preceded by other adaptive experiences, regardless of age.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

More practice does not necessarily enhance transfer of learning: evidence and interpretations.

The purpose of this study was to investigate what was learned and transferred of a criterion task using a transfer task and a self-paced procedure. Based on the results of two previous studies, five durations of practice were specifically selected to examine what can be transferred to a new task after different amounts of practice (40, 75, 100, 125, and 150 acquisition trials) on a criterion task. The criterion task required subjects to practice finding an 8-in. line with no fixed starting and ending points from left to right. The transfer task was different from the criterion task in two dimensions, distance (10-in. line) and direction (right to left). 50 volunteers were randomly assigned into 5 groups. Appropriate 5 x 2 (groups by blocks of practice) analyses of variance and a priori contrasts were conducted for all dependent variables (absolute error, variable error, movement time, KR-delay, post-KR interval, intertrial interval, interstimulus interval, and KR-delay by post-KR interval ratio) to examine the effects of terminal acquisition of the criterion task on the initial performance of the transfer task. Analysis indicated that, during practice, participants developed a functional interaction between performance characteristics and chronological profile of KR-delivery of the criterion task that was transferable to the transfer task. Also, practice beyond a certain point was detrimental to the ability to transfer what was learned.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

The advantage of simple symbols for learning and transfer.

A goal of successful learning is the transfer of learned knowledge to novel situations. However, spontaneous transfer is notoriously difficult to achieve. In this research, we argue that learning and transfer can be facilitated when knowledge is expressed in an abstract, generic form. In Experiments 1 and 2, undergraduate students learned two isomorphic domains, which were based on the same algebraic group, with one domain expressed in a more abstract, generic form and the other expressed in a more concrete form. In both experiments, transfer from more abstract to more concrete was greater than the reverse. In Experiment 3, undergraduate students learned the same algebraic group under varying degrees of concreteness. Our results demonstrate that the use of perceptually rich, concrete symbols may hinder learning. This research indicates that concreteness may have substantial learning and transfer costs, whereas abstractness may have benefits.

Humans↗
PubMed2003

Learning a single limb multijoint coordination pattern: the impact of a mechanical constraint on the coordination dynamics of learning and transfer.

The coordination dynamics of learning and transfer were studied in a single limb multijoint task requiring rhythmic elbow and wrist motions. Participants were required to learn a continuous 90 degrees relative phase pattern between the elbow and wrist such that an angle-angle plot of elbow and wrist motion produced a circle with a diameter of 80 degrees. Joint motion was restricted to elbow and wrist flexion-extension on the sagittal plane and the to-be-learned 90 degrees relative phase pattern was always practiced with the learning arm supine. Cycling frequency was controlled by a pacing metronome set at 0.75 Hz. Issues regarding effector-independent and effector-specific transfer were addressed with three transfer conditions: (1). learning arm prone (LP), (2). non-learning arm supine (NS), and (3). non-learning arm prone (NP). Four subjects learned the required relative phase (90 degrees ) and amplitude (80 degrees ) pattern with their dominant arm and four with their non-dominant arm. The experiment produced three main findings with regard to elbow-wrist control processes: First, seven of eight participants spontaneously produced a wrist-lagging coordination pattern (wrist motion lagged elbow motion) in learning to produce a continuous relative phase pattern of 90 degrees between the elbow and wrist. The wrist-lagging pattern may emerge as a result of the central nervous system exploiting the transfer of angular momentum from the elbow to the wrist as the elbow rotates up and down. The influence of interactive torque on elbow-wrist coordination represents an important mechanical constraint on the selection of intralimb coordination strategies during learning. The transfer conditions revealed that this mechanical constraint was effector-independent with regard to ipsilateral limb transfer (LP) and contralateral limb transfer (NS and NP). Second, consistent transfer of the learned relative phase pattern across ipsilateral and contralateral conditions demonstrates an effector-independent representation for this control variable. The effector-independent and effector-specific nature of joint amplitude transfer was dependent to some degree on learning arm, dominant or non-dominant, and the amount of practice, 1 day versus 5 days. Third, learning of the required 90 degrees relative phase pattern may be characterized as a phase transition leading to the formation of a stable attractor in the elbow-wrist coordination landscape. The above findings are discussed with respect to motor programming and coordination dynamic viewpoints on effector-independent and effector-specific aspects of motor equivalence.

Adult↗
PubMed1988

Intelligence-related differences in learning and transfer and enhancement of transfer among mentally retarded persons.

Prompted learning and transfer were compared for mildly retarded, average-achieving, and above-average children ranging in age from 11.3 to 16.0 years. They learned a strategy for computing moments on balance scale conflict problems with the aid of a graduated sequence of prompts. Maintenance and transfer were assessed one week later using similar prompting procedures. Retarded children required more assistance than did nonretarded children to learn and to transfer the trained strategy. The provision of an additional training session, however, improved retarded children's maintenance and somewhat improved their transfer. The ability-related differences in learning and transfer and the means to improve retarded children's transfer were discussed in light of current conceptions of intelligence and metacognition.

Achievement↗
PubMed1982

Transfer of learning in transformed random-dot stereostimuli.

The transfer of learning between normal and monocularly-transformed small-disparity, random-dot stereostimuli has been examined under extended viewing conditions. When the disparity value was constant, transfer of learning between normal and monocularly-transformed stereostimuli was disrupted by both low-frequency and high-frequency transformations. These results suggest that stereolearning is restricted to disparity units that are selective to the same spatial-frequency characteristics.

Depth Perception↗
PubMed2005

Learning and transfer of an ipsilateral coordination task: evidence for a dual-layer movement representation.

The present study addressed the nature of the memory representation for interlimb coordination tasks. For this purpose, the acquisition of a multifrequency (2:1) task with the ipsilateral limbs and transfer to the ipsilateral and contralateral body side was examined. In particular, subjects practiced a 2:1 coordination pattern whereby the right arm moved twice as fast as the right leg, or vice versa. Subsequently, they transferred the practiced 2:1 task to three different conditions: (1) the converse partner (i.e., the slow-moving limb had to move fast, and vice versa) at the ipsilateral body side, and (2) the identical and (3) converse 2:1 pattern at the contralateral body side. Findings revealed positive transfer of the identical and converse 2:1 pattern to the contralateral body side. However, no transfer of the learned pattern to its converse partner at the same body side was revealed. We propose a new memory representation model for coordination patterns, composed of an effector-independent and effector-specific component (dual-layer model). It is hypothesized that the general movement goal (i.e., moving one limb twice as fast as the other) constitutes the abstract, higher-level representation that may account for positive contralateral transfer. Conversely, the effector-specific component contains task-specific lower-level muscle synergies that are acquired through practice, prohibiting positive transfer when shifting task allocation within the same effectors. These findings are consistent with recent neuroscientific evidence for neuroplastic changes in distributed brain areas.

Adult↗
PubMed1964

TIME FACTORS IN INTERHEMISPHERIC TRANSFER OF LEARNING.

Single-trial interhemispheric transfer of a discrimination task engram was studied by eliciting spreading depression unilaterally during acquisition of the discrimination. Complete transfer to the untrained side occurred after one trial with both hemispheres functional, if 10 minutes elapsed between this trial and the elicitation of spreading depression in the trained side. If depression was elicited 15 seconds after the trial no transfer occurred. correct response highly probable.

Brain↗
PubMed1980

Role of interproblem learning in interocular transfer.

The learning of a pattern discrimination may be divided into two components, one specific to the pattern task and another general to it and other tasks. The purpose of these experiments was to assess the degree to which these different components transfer interocularly, as well as to determine the effects of variations in prior acquisition on interocular transfer. In the first experiment, 28 albino rats were assigned to four equal groups that permitted assessment of the influences, on acquisition or interocular transfer of a pattern discrimination, of prior ipsi-ocular, contra-ocular, or sequential binocular training on a black-white task. Interocular savings were reduced by a factor of three when the black-white task (the general component) was acquired priorly, but there was no difference between the effects of prior contra-ocular training on black-white or pattern on subsequent monocular acquisition of the pattern task. Thus, all interocular transfer might be due to the general component. The second experiment, a partial replication, was performed to clarify whether information specific to the pattern task transferred interocularly. Again, interocular savings were reduced by a factor of three after prior black-white training. However, monocular acquisition of the pattern task facilitated subsequent contra-ocular learning of that same task more so than did prior monocular acquisition of a black-white task, indicating that some contribution is made to interocular savings by the information specific to the pattern task.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Dynamics of learning and transfer of muscular and spatial relative phase in bimanual coordination: evidence for abstract directional codes.

The present study addressed whether the timing of muscle activation and the relative direction of limb movements are dissociable constraints that may affect learning and transfer of bimanual coordination patterns, either independently or in combination. Subjects were assigned to two experimental groups in which the to-be-learned muscular phasing (135 degrees ) was either practiced with 45 degrees (i.e., predominantly isodirectional) or 135 degrees (i.e., predominantly nonisodirectional) of spatial relative phase (RP) across 2 days of practice. Prior to, during, and following practice, probe tests were held in which various relative phasing patterns were administered to assess transfer of learning. Converging evidence was obtained that the relative direction of moving limbs prominently constrained transfer of learning rather than muscular relationships. Acquisition of a specific pattern resulted in spontaneous positive transfer of learning to a new coordination pattern having the same spatial RP but not to a pattern with a different spatial RP, irrespective of muscular phasing relationships. In summary, the present results suggest that learning and transfer of coordination patterns is mediated by abstract directional codes that become part of the memory representation for bimanual coordination.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Perceptual learning of Gabor orientation identification in visual periphery: complete inter-ocular transfer of learning mechanisms.

We combined the external noise paradigm, the Perceptual Template Model approach, and transfer tests to investigate the mechanisms and eye-specificity of perceptual learning of Gabor orientation in visual periphery. Coupled with a fixation task, discriminating a 5 from an S in a rapid small character string at fixation, contrast thresholds were estimated for each of eight external noise levels at two performance criteria using 3/1 and 2/1 staircases. Perceptual learning in one eye was measured over 10 practice sessions, followed by five sessions of practice in the new eye to assess transfer. We found that monocular learning improved performance (reduced contrast thresholds) with virtually equal magnitude across a wide range of external noise levels with no significant change in central task performance. Based on measurements of learning effects at two performance criterion levels, we identified a mixture of stimulus enhancement and external noise exclusion as the mechanism of perceptual learning underlying the observed improvements. Perceptual learning in the trained eye generalized completely to the untrained eye. We related the transfer patterns to known physiology and psychophysics on orientation direction coding.

Contrast Sensitivity↗
PubMed2005

Transfer of learning to compensate for impairment by alcohol and visual degradation.

RATIONALE: Past research on social drinkers shows that prior experience performing a task in a visually degraded environment results in the reduction of alcohol-induced impairment. It is possible that task experience under alcohol might similarly carry over to reduce impairment from visual degradation. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to test the symmetry of the transfer of learning between two distinct sources of impairment, visual degradation and alcohol. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Psychomotor impairment was measured by a pursuit rotor tracking task. Forty two participants were randomly assigned to one of six treatment groups. Two groups were tested under alcohol after having prior task experience performing with or without visual degradation. Two groups were tested under visual degradation after having prior task experience performing under active (0.65 g/kg) or inactive (placebo) doses of alcohol. The remaining two groups served as controls that tested the learning effects of repeating each active treatment. RESULTS: Clear evidence for asymmetrical transfer of learning was observed. Prior task experience with visual degradation reduced the impairing effects of alcohol. By contrast, prior task experience under alcohol had no effect on impairment produced by visual degradation. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence for differential transfer of learning to compensate for alcohol- and visual-degradation-induced impairment is of practical interest, given that the two disturbances commonly co-occur outside the laboratory. Reasons for the asymmetry are unclear, and likely involve differences in mechanisms by which each treatment impairs psychomotor function.

Adult↗