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PubMed2006

Evidence of earliest human occurrence in Europe: the site of Pirro Nord (Southern Italy).

Some flint lithic artifacts were discovered in the fissure fillings of the well-known Pirro Nord site (Apulia, Southern Italy). The lithic industry, composed by three cores and some flakes, has been found to be associated to an Early Pleistocene vertebrate fossil assemblage. The fossil association contains a wide range of micromammals, including Allophaiomys ruffoi and Episoriculus gibberodon and large mammals including Bison degiulii and Equus altidens together with African elements as the gelada baboon Theropithecus and the saber-toothed cat Megantereon whitei. It defines the latest Villafranchian chronological unit (Pirro Nord Faunal Unit) in the Western European mammal biochronology. The lithic industry of Pirro Nord represents the oldest occurrence of the genus Homo in Europe as it is attributable to a chronological interval between 1.3 and 1.7 Ma. This supports the hypothesis that the genus Homo, with Oldowaian technology, extended its range in Europe, probably from western Asia, during the first half of the Early Pleistocene. The new discovery from Pirro Nord changes the chronology of the first arrival of hominids in Europe and offers new perspectives in the debate about the human dispersal in the Early Pleistocene.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Changes in unit structures and infanticide observed in Arsi geladas.

In 1989 a new gelada baboon ( Theropithecus gelada) population was found in Arsi, on the opposite side of the Rift Valley to that of the known gelada populations of Semien and Showa. Previous comparisons of units of the band at Gado Goro, Arsi, in the same season in consecutive years, indicated that unit structure is less stable among Arsi geladas as compared to the Semien population. Gelada units of the band at Gado-Goro were studied for 7 months in order to investigate the processes of social changes. Changes in unit structure were observed. Provisioning was carried out for 1.5 months at the beginning of the 7-month study period, in order to capture and obtain blood samples from the geladas. Following this, changes in male leadership of some units were observed, presumably as a consequence of the capture. However, natural changes also occurred. One change in unit structure occurred after a female gave birth, and changes in another unit occurred after the disappearance of the leader male. These changes involved female desertion of a unit, her subsequent transfer to a male unit, and culminated in the formation of a unit consisting of one female and one male. One successful and one attempted case of unification of units, and one case of change of a unit leader male are reported. These changes occurred among eight resident units in a period of 7 months (196 female months). Though the types of social changes were not much different from previous observations in Semien National Park, their frequencies seemed to be much higher. The characteristics of Arsi gelada social changes are proposed to be related to the small size of the units. We also describe a new confirmed case and one suspected case of infanticide, as well as one case of abortion at the time of male leader change.

Aggression↗
PubMed1986

A field study of infection with human T-cell leukemia virus among African primates.

African non-human primates were surveyed seroepidemiologically for natural infection of human T-cell leukemia virus type I (ATLV/HTLV-I) or its closely related virus(es). Materials from three genera (Cercopithecus, Papio, and Theropithecus), four species (grivet monkey, Anubis baboon, Hamadryas baboon, and gelada), totalling 983 animals under natural conditions, were obtained in a field study in Ethiopia. Virus infection was determined by the indirect immunofluorescence test using HTLV-I specific antigens. Animals seropositive for HTLV-I were found among grivet monkeys and Anubis baboons including the hybrid offspring between Anubis and Hamadryas baboons but not pure-Hamadryas baboons and geladas. From these results, the HTLV-I family was proved to be widespread on the African continent and was regarded as a common retrovirus among catarrhines.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

The lacrimal fossa of cercopithecoidea, with special reference to cladistic analysis of Old World monkey relationships.

Re-examination of lacrimal fossa patterns in extant cercopithecoids indicates that the last common ancestor of Cercopithecini and Papionini, and hence of Cercopithecinae, probably retained a maxillary contribution to the lacrimal fossa, as did the common ancestor of Colobinae. Consequently, the presence of a maxilla-lacrimal fossa cannot be used to assess the subfamily affinity of Old World monkeys. In addition to being correlated with general facial lengthening, the derived, exclusively lacrimal pattern of Erythrocebus, Mandrillus, Papio, Theropithecus and some (but not all) guenons, macaques and mangabeys may be associated with extreme narrowing of the interorbital septum. Moreover, the derived condition may have evolved in response to independent exploitation of open country habitats as it enhances protection of the lacrimal sac and serves to reduce eye infection in terrestrial species.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Cardiomyopathy associated with vitamin E deficiency in seven gelada baboons.

Between November 1979 and July 1982, 7 captive gelada baboons (Theropithecus gelada) died; 5 of them died unexpectedly, 1 died after a 4-month history of heart failure, and 1 was anemic and dyspneic for 2 days before death. Of those that died unexpectedly, 1 was anemic and 4 were clinically normal. At necropsy, all baboons had white or pale patches of myocardium. Histologically, fibrosis and acute myocytolysis were observed in the myocardium. Three affected baboons were tested for plasma alpha-tocopherol content and were found deficient. Four unaffected baboons were given vitamin E for 24 months, and plasma alpha-tocopherol content returned to normal. Blood selenium content was determined in 1 affected baboon and was normal.

Anemia↗
PubMed2001

Primate molar crown formation times and life history evolution revisited.

Comparative studies have convincingly demonstrated that the pattern and timing of tooth emergence are highly correlated with life-history variables and brain size. Conversely, a firm relationship between molar formation time and life-history variables has not yet been established. It seems counterintuitive that one aspect of dental development should be correlated with life-history variables, whereas the other should not. In order to shed light on this apparent discrepancy this study analyzed all data on primate molar crown formations available in the published literature in relation to life-history variables, brain size, and female body mass. Crown formation times were found to be particularly highly correlated with both female body mass and brain size. Species that depart from the overall brain/body allometry by being relatively large-bodied, e.g., Gorilla gorilla and later Theropithecus oswaldi, also have shorter molar crown formation times than expected. The reverse is not found for species that depart from the overall brain/body allometry due to their larger brains, i.e., Homo sapiens. This finding is interpreted within an evolutionary and ecological framework. Specifically, by focusing on ecological commonalities, a scenario is proposed which may allow predictions to be made about the evolutionary history of other extinct primates also. If confirmed in future studies, crown formation time may again become a powerful tool in evolutionary enquiry.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Long bone articular and diaphyseal structure in old world monkeys and apes. I: locomotor effects.

The relationship between locomotor behavior and long bone structural proportions is examined in 179 individuals and 13 species of hominoids and cercopithecoids. Articular surface areas, estimated from linear caliper measurements, and diaphyseal section moduli (strengths), determined from CT scans, were obtained for the femur, tibia, humerus, radius, and ulna. Both within-bone (articular to shaft) and between-bone (forelimb to hindlimb) proportions were calculated and compared between taxa. It was hypothesized that: 1) species emphasizing slow, cautious movement and/or more varied limb positioning (i.e., greater joint excursion) would exhibit larger articular to cross-sectional shaft proportions, and 2) species with more forelimb suspensory behavior would have relatively stronger/larger forelimbs, while those with more leaping would have relatively stronger/larger hindlimbs. The results of the analysis generally confirm both hypotheses. Several partial exceptions can be explained on the basis of more detailed structural-functional considerations. Associations between locomotion and structural proportions can be demonstrated both across major groupings (hominoids and cercopithecoids) and between relatively closely related taxa, e.g., mountain and lowland gorillas, siamangs and gibbons, and Trachypithecus and other colobines. Furthermore, structure and function do not always covary with taxonomy. For example, compared to cercopithecoids, mountain gorillas have relatively larger joints, like other hominoids, but do not have relatively stronger forelimbs, unlike other hominoids. This is consistent with a locomotor repertoire emphasizing relatively slow movement but with very little forelimb suspension. Proportions of Proconsul nyanzae, Proconsul heseloni, Morotopithecus bishopi, and Theropithecus oswaldi are compared with modern distributions to illustrate the application of the techniques to fossil taxa.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Long bone articular and diaphyseal structure in Old World monkeys and apes. II: Estimation of body mass.

Body mass estimation equations are generated from long bone cross-sectional diaphyseal and articular surface dimensions in 176 individuals and 12 species of hominoids and cercopithecoids. A series of comparisons is carried out to determine the best body mass predictors for each of several taxonomic/locomotor groupings. Articular breadths are better predictors than articular surface areas, while cross-sectional shaft strengths are better predictors than shaft external breadths. Percent standard errors of estimate (%SEEs) and percent prediction errors for most of the better predictors range between 10-20%. Confidence intervals of equations using sex/species means are fairly representative of those calculated using individual data, except for sex/species means equations with very low %SEEs (under about 10%), where confidence intervals (CIs) based on individuals are likely to be larger. Given individual variability, or biological "error," this may represent a lower limit of precision in estimating individual body masses. In general, it is much more preferable to determine at least broad locomotor affinities, and thus appropriate modern reference groups, before applying body mass estimation equations. However, some structural dimensions are less sensitive to locomotor distinctions than others; for example, proximal tibial articular M-L breadth is apparently "locomotor blind" regarding body mass estimation within the present study sample. In other cases where locomotor affiliation is uncertain, mean estimates from different reference groups can be used, while for some dimensions no estimation should be attempted. The techniques are illustrated by estimating the body masses of four fossil anthropoid specimens of Proconsul nyanzae, Proconsul heseloni, Morotopithecus bishopi, and Theropithecus oswaldi.

Animals↗
PubMed1976

Bipedal behavior of olive baboons (Papio anubis) and its relevance to an understanding of the evolution of human bipedalism.

The bipedal behavior of a troop of olive baboons (Papio anubis) is described. Bipedalism is relatively rare but nevertheless occurs in a wide variety of situations, although bipedalism during feeding occurs much more frequently than in other situations. The incidence of bipedalism varies between different age-sex classes and between individuals within age-sex classes. This pattern of bipedalism occurred within an overall adaptive response, particularly in feeding behavior, which was similar to that of the gelada baboon (Theropithecus gelada). The data on bipedalism is used together with an existing model of early hominid differentiation based on T. gelada to indicate the types of bipedal behavior which might have occurred in early hominid small object feeders and to suggest how a bipedal pattern of this type might have served as a basis for the action of selection for a more committedly bipedal pattern at later stages of hominid evolution.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1983

Estimation of body weights from craniometric variables in baboons.

Body weights of adult baboons (genera Papio, Mandrillus, and Theropithecus) were gathered from notes of collectors and museum records. However, these data were insufficient to establish mean body weights for all baboon groups. Thus, log cube roots of mean body weights were regressed as functions of the logs of several cranial and dental variables. The resulting least squares regression coefficients were used to estimate weights for 503 adult baboons from cranial measurements. The ability of the various regression functions to assess baboon body weight was determined by comparing reported and estimated mean and individual body weights. The best estimator of baboon body weights was the function derived from the factor scores of a principal components analysis of seven craniometric variables regressed on body weight. However, each of these craniometric variables singly was nearly as precise an estimator of body weight as the multivariate combination of all seven. Other measurements such as dental dimensions and foramen magnum area estimated weight less accurately. Body weight estimates derived from the regression analyses coupled with museum and literature records allowed an assessment of size relationships among all baboon groups.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

The subarcuate fossa and cerebellum of extant primates: comparative study of a skull-brain interface.

The subarcuate fossa of the petrosal bone houses the petrosal lobule of the cerebellar paraflocculus. Although the subarcuate fossa can be extensive, little is known about its relative size and distribution in primates. Studies indicate parafloccular involvement with cerebellar areas coordinating vestibular, visual, auditory, and locomotor systems. Hypotheses have proposed a role for the paraflocculus in vestibular-oculomotor integration, caudal muscle control, autonomic function, and visual-manual predation. This study examines the morphology and relative extent of the subarcuate fossa/petrosal lobule in a range of living primates. Methods include study of postmortem specimens representing nine mammalian orders, and qualification of the volume of the subarcuate fossa and endocranial cavity in 155 dry primate crania of 36 genera. Results show that, in mammals, the size and morphology of the petrosal lobule is directly related to that of the subarcuate fossa. Craniometric analysis shows that the ratio of subarcuate fossa volume to endocranial volume is largest in lemuriforms. The largest ratio is in Microcebus and Hapalemur. Lorisids show a significant reduction in the size of the subarcuate fossa to almost 50% below the lemuriform mean. Tarsius is near the lemuriform mean. Among platyrrhines, the ratio is high, but significantly reduced compared to lemuiforms. The highest platyrrhine ratio is seen in Ateles, the lowest in Saimiri and Alouatta. Atelids are significantly elevated compared to cebids. In cercopithecids, the fossa is significantly reduced compared to platyrrhines. The trend toward reduction of the cercopithecid fossa is most pronounced in Theropithecus and least evident in Presbytis. In hominoids, the fossa is present only in Hylobates. In great apes and humans, other than Gorilla, the petromastoid canal occupies a similar location to the subarcuate fossa of other primates, but is not homologous to it. Neither the subarcuate fossa nor the petromastoid canal are present in Gorilla. A graded reduction of the subarcuate fossa/petrosal lobule is evident among primates which evolved later in time. The relative size of this cerebellar lobule within primates may reflect size-related factors and/or degree of neocortical evolution as these relate to usage of a specific sensory-mediated locomotor behavior. The subarcuate fossa may serve as an indicator to the differentiation of the petrosal lobule of the paraflocculus in fossil forms.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Hindlimb proportions, allometry, and biomechanics in Old World monkeys (primates, Cercopithecidae).

The traditional focus on morphological rather than mechanical units has obscured some significant functional differences in the hindlimbs of primates. This paper examines the allometric and biomechanical basis for some distinctive proportional differences among pairs of morphological units in the hindlimb, and especially the foot, of cercopithecid primates. Five major conclusions are reached. First, many hindlimb dimensions scale allometrically with body mass to maintain mechanical similarity within taxonomic and locomotor groups. Therefore, the majority of traditional indices which describe the shape of the foot within cercopithecids reveal differences which are primarily a function of size. Second, the hindlimb segments in colobines, and especially in Presbytis, are relatively long, probably to enhance leaping. Third, the major distinction of terrestrial cercopithecines among the features analysed is reduction in the length of the phalanges, due to the reduced importance of grasping during locomotion and the assumption of digitigrady. Fourth, Theropithecus and male Erythrocebus have high crural indices, relative to their body masses, which can facilitate curosoriality. Female E. patas already has a high crural index as a function of its body mass. Fifth, macaques form a distinctive group among cercopithecines, characterized by relatively short hindlimbs. Relatively very short hindlimbs in Macaca fuscata and M. thibetana suggest that climatic conditions can have an added effect on the lengths of the hindlimb segments. In summary, this analysis of the lengths of the hindlimb segments relative to body size reveals taxonomic differences which are due in part to phylogeny, to differences in locomotor behavior, and to substrate use.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1992

Erosive arthritis and spondyloarthropathy in Old World primates.

Presence of spine and sacroiliac involvement and the nature and distribution of the erosive lesions allow definitive diagnosis of spondyloarthropathy. Thus, spondyloarthropathy was identified in Theropithecus, Papio, Cercopithecus, Macaca, Colobus, Presbytis, and Hylobates. Only monarticular erosive disease was present in prosimians, precluding a diagnosis of spondyloarthropathy for that group. The distribution of erosive disease and axial joint involvement in 1,349 non-prosimian Old World primates is quite characteristic of that noted in human psoriatic arthritis. While Reiter's syndrome must also be considered, the histologic appearance of skin lesions in Macaca is characteristic of psoriasis. Evidence of spondyloarthropathy abounds in the literature of primate skeletal disease. Environmentally based contagions may be important in the pathophysiology of spondyloarthropathy. The wide geographic distribution of the phenomena in monkeys suggests a "panendemic," with limited individual susceptibility (compared to that noted in gorillas and chimpanzees). Identical occurrence of erosive arthritis/spondyloarthropathy in free-ranging and artificially restrained animals suggests that spondyloarthropathy can validly be studied in artificially restrained populations. This perspective should allow application of human therapeutic approaches to and perhaps improve the quality of life for artificially restrained, afflicted individuals.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Phylogenetic, paleodemographic, and taphonomic implications of Victoriapithecus deciduous teeth from Maboko, Kenya.

More than 240 milk teeth of Victoriapithecus macinnesi, representing all elements of the deciduous dentition, are described. Their morphology is intermediate between that of hominoids and cercopithecids. Unlike colobine and cercopithecine milk teeth, Victoriapithecus dp3s, dp4s, and at least 7 (14%) dp4s lack transverse distal loph(id)s and are not bilophodont. Victoriapithecus also differs from cercopithecids in having less elongated deciduous premolars, a dp3 metacone set mesial to a very small hypocone, a dp4 crista obliqua, and a dp4 hypoconulid. The deciduous canines and incisors of Victoriapithecus are like those of other cercopithecids in having an uneven distribution of enamel around a compressed (rather than cylindrical) root, but differ from cercopithecids and resemble hominoids in being more elongated. Since Colobinae and Cercopithecinae share features of the deciduous dentition that are derived relative to Victoriapithecus and hominoids, extant Old World monkeys are interpreted as representing the sister-taxon of the middle Miocene cercopithecoids. Due to a dramatic increase in the number of deciduous teeth found at Maboko Island, juvenile individuals represent a much larger proportion of recently excavated Victoriapithecus collections than is true of pre-1987 assemblages which mainly derive from sediment first excavated during the 1930s and 1940s. Age distribution differences between pre- and post-1987 samples indicate that paleontological collection procedures were more important than taphonomic biases in determining the paleodemographic profile of the Maboko fossils. Since the Victoriapithecus assemblage from Maboko is strikingly similar to that of fossil Theropithecus oswaldi from Olorgesailie in terms of the large number of specimens and high representation of juvenile and infant individuals, the latter can no longer be viewed as unique among cercopithecoid fossil assemblages. Rather than being related to a specific cause of death, such as selective hunting of T. oswaldi by Homo (Shipman et al. [1981] Curr. Anthropol. 22:257-268), the large number of cercopithecoids at both sites is attributed to the fact that both assemblages represent excavated samples and that the preferred habitats of the extinct monkeys were probably at or near the site of deposition. The greater number of young adult male than female canines in the apparently attritional Maboko Bed 5 assemblage, indicate that the social organization of V. macinnesi may have been similar to that of modern macaques, with males migrating out of their natal group and suffering higher death rates than females at puberty.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

An ecomorphological model of the initial hominid dispersal from Africa.

We use new data on the timing and extent of the early Pleistocene dispersal of Homo erectus to estimate diffusion coefficients of early Homo from Africa. These diffusion coefficients indicate more rapid and efficient dispersals than those calculated for fossil Macaca sp., Theropithecus darti, and Mesopithecus pentelicus. Increases in home range size associated with changes in ecology, hominid body size, and possibly foraging strategy may underlay these differences in dispersal efficiency. Ecological data for extant primates and human foragers indicate a close relationship between body size, home range size, and diet quality. These data predict that evolutionary changes in body size and foraging behavior would have produced a 10-fold increase in the home range size of H. erectus compared with that of the australopithecines. These two independent datasets provide a means of quantifying aspects of the dispersal of early Homo and suggest that rapid rates of dispersal appear to have been promoted by changes in foraging strategy and body size in H. erectus facilitated by changes in ecosystem structure during the Plio-Pleistocene.

Africa↗
PubMed2000

Comparison of Y chromosome and mtDNA phylogenies leads to unique inferences of macaque evolutionary history.

We report here the results of one of the first analyses to use male-specific nuclear markers in elucidating primate phylogenetic relationships at the intrageneric level. Two closely linked Y chromosome markers, TSPY and SRY, were sequenced for a total of 3100 bases. Forty-four macaques, representing 18 of the 19 recognized species, were sequenced for the full 3.1 kb, as was 1 individual from each of the following outgroup genera: Papio, Theropithecus, Mandrillus, Allenopithecus,Cercopithecus, Trachypithecus, Presbytis, and Homo. In contrast to recent mtDNA phylogenies, Y chromosome loci support four monophyletic species groups, including a sinica group containing M. arctoides-a classification largely congruent with those of Fooden and Delson. Comparison of mtDNA and Y chromosome phylogenies highlight (1) a potential hybrid origin of Macaca arctoides from M. fascicularis and proto-M. assamensis/thibetana and (2) cases of mitochondrial paraphyly in macaque species whose Y chromosome lineages are monophyletic-a probable evolutionary consequence of philopatric females vs dispersing males. These results raise the question of whether a phylogenetic tree should be a topology of species origins or a depiction of more current species relationships, including subsequent episodes of introgression.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Catarrhine phylogeny: noncoding DNA evidence for a diphyletic origin of the mangabeys and for a human-chimpanzee clade.

Maximum-parsimony and maximum-likelihood analyses of two of the serum albumin gene's intron sequences from 24 catarrhines (17 cercopithecid and 7 hominid) and 3 platyrrhines (an outgroup to the catarrhines) yielded results on catarrhine phylogeny that are congruent with those obtained with noncoding sequences of the gamma(1)-gamma(2) globin gene genomic region, using only those flanking and intergenic gamma sequences that in their history were not involved in gene conversion. A data set that combined in a tandem alignment these two sets of noncoding DNA orthologues from the two unlinked nuclear genomic loci yielded the following confirmatory results both on the course of cladistic branchings (the divisions in a cladistic classification of higher ranking taxa into subordinate taxa) and on the ages of the taxa (each taxon representing a clade). The cercopithecid branch of catarrhines, at approximately 14 Ma (mega annum) divided into Colobini (the leaf-eating Old World monkeys) and Cercopithecini (the cheek-pouched Old World monkeys). At approximately 10-9 Ma, Colobini divided into an African clade, Colobina, and an Asian clade, Presbytina; similarly at this time level, Cercopithecini divided into Cercopithecina (the guenons, patas, and green monkeys) and Papionina. At approximately 7 Ma, Papionina divided into Macaca, Cercocebus, and Papio. At approximately 5 Ma, Cercocebus divided subgenerically into C. (Cercocebus) for terrestrial mangabeys and C. (Mandrillus) for drills and mandrills, while at approximately 4 Ma Papio divided subgenerically into P. (Locophocebus) for arboreal mangabeys, P. (Theropithecus) for gelada baboons, and P. (Papio) for hamadryas baboons. In turn, the hominid branch of catarrhines at approximately 18 Ma divided into Hylobatini (gibbons and siamangs) and Hominini; at approximately 14 Ma, Hominini divided into Pongina (orangutans) and Hominina; at approximately 7 Ma, Hominina divided into Gorilla and Homo; and at approximately 6-5 Ma, Homo divided subgenerically into H. (Homo) for humans and H. (Pan) for common and bonobo chimpanzees. Rates of noncoding DNA evolution were assessed using a data set of noncoding gamma sequence orthologues that represented 18 catarrhines, 16 platyrrhines, 3 non-anthropoid primates (2 tarsiers and 1 strepsirhine), and rabbit (as outgroup to the primates). Results obtained with this data set revealed a faster rate of nucleotide substitutions in the early primate lineage to the anthropoid (platyrrhine/catarrhine) ancestor than from that ancestor to the present. Rates were slower in catarrhines than in platyrrhines, slower in the cheek-pouched than in the leaf-eating cercopithecids, and slower yet in the hominids. On relating these results to data on brain sizes and life spans, it was suggested that life-history strategies that favor intelligence and longer life spans also select for decreases in de novo mutation rates.

Albumins↗
PubMed1995

Leishmania aethiopica: experimental infections in non-human primates.

Six Cercopithecus aethiops monkeys, 4 Theropithecus gelada baboons and 2 Papio anubis baboons were infected using Leishmania aethiopica isolates originating either from localized (LCL) or diffuse (DCL) cutaneous leishmaniasis patients. The history of lesions in 4 C. aethiops monkeys infected by LCL strains mimicked the process in human LCL patients. Infection of 2 C. aethiops monkeys using a DCL strain resulted in localized, non-ulcerative, self-healing nodular lesions. Such lesions were also observed in 2 T. gelada baboons infected by LCL strains. Active lesions and healing in C. aethiops and T. gelada, after infection by LCL stains, were accompanied by positive DTH and immunity to challenge by LCL or DCL strains.

Animals↗