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PubMed2001

Infrared microscopic imaging of bone: spatial distribution of CO3(2-).

This article describes a novel technology for quantitative determination of the spatial distribution of CO3(2-) substitution in bone mineral using infrared (IR) imaging at approximately 6 microm spatial resolution. This novel technology consists of an IR array detector of 64 x 64 elements mapped to a 400 microm x 400 microm spot at the focal plane of an IR microscope. During each scan, a complete IR spectrum is acquired from each element in the array. The variation of any IR parameter across the array may be mapped. In the current study, a linear relationship was observed between the band area or the peak height ratio of the CO3(2-) v3 contour at 1415 cm(-1) to the PO4(3-) v1,v3 contour in a series of synthetic carbonated apatites. The correlation coefficient between the spectroscopically and analytically determined ratios (R2 = 0.989) attests to the practical utility of this IR area ratio for determination of bone CO3(2-) levels. The relationship forms the basis for the determination of CO3(2-) in tissue sections using IR imaging. In four images of trabecular bone the average CO3(2-) levels were 5.95 wt% (2298 data points), 6.67% (2040 data points), 6.66% (1176 data points), and 6.73% (2256 data points) with an overall average of 6.38+/-0.14% (7770 data points). The highest levels of CO3(2-) were found at the edge of the trabeculae and immediately adjacent to the Haversian canal. Examination of parameters derived from the phosphate v1,v3 contour of the synthetic apatites revealed that the crystallinity/perfection of the hydroxyapatite (HA) crystals was diminished as CO3(2-) levels increased. The methodology described will permit evaluation of the spatial distribution of CO3(2-) levels in diseased and normal mineralized tissues.

Bone and Bones↗
PubMed2001

Age-related accumulation and spatial distribution of lipofuscin in RPE of normal subjects.

PURPOSE: To characterize the age-related accumulation of lipofuscin in a population of normal subjects, resolve differences in estimated accumulation rates obtained in previous studies, and characterize the spatial distribution of lipofuscin in the normal fundus. METHODS: Spectrophotometric measurements were made at the fovea and 7 degrees temporal to the fovea in 145 normal subjects (age range, 15-80 years). Spatial distribution along the four cardinal meridians was measured in selected subjects by both spectrophotometry and autofluorescence imaging. To minimize contributions of extraneous fluorophores, macular pigment, and melanin, all measurements used excitation at 550 nm, integrating emission between 650 and 750 nm. RESULTS: Lipofuscin fluorescence increased linearly until age 70, then declined. The rate of accumulation was significantly slower in the fovea than at the temporal site; accumulation rates in vivo were greater than previously observed in microscopic studies. Fluorescence was approximately 40% lower in the fovea than at 7 degrees eccentricity and was asymmetrically distributed around the fovea. The fluorescence was maximal at approximately 11 degrees temporally, approximately 7 degrees nasally, approximately 13 degrees superiorly, and approximately 9 degrees inferiorly. At the same eccentricity, fluorescence was always less along the inferior meridian than along any other. CONCLUSIONS: Light absorption by RPE melanin can explain differences between the in vivo and ex vivo estimates of the rate of lipofuscin accumulation. Declining fluorescence at old age may represent removal of atrophic RPE cells. The spatial distribution of lipofuscin generally matches that of rods and reflects, rather than predicts, the pattern of age-related loss of rod photoreceptors.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Frequency-dependent spatial distribution of human somatosensory evoked neuromagnetic fields.

Using synthetic aperture magnetometry (SAM), we examined the spatial distribution of frequency changes in magnetoencephalography signal rhythms on individual magnetic resonance images following somatosensory stimulation. SAM is a novel statistical spatial filtering method that uses an adaptive beamformer. Electrical stimulation of the right median nerve demonstrated high-frequency event-related synchronization (ERS) in the 50-200-Hz range, consistently localized in the contralateral primary sensorimotor area in all subjects (n=7). Event-related desynchronization (ERD) was demonstrated in the 8-13, 13-25 and 25-50-Hz ranges bilaterally in the area surrounding the central sulcus. The differences in the spatial distribution as well as the frequency bands between ERS and ERD suggest that ERS and ERD reflect the responses of different cell assemblies rather than a frequency shift of the same cell assembly.

Adult↗
PubMed1982

Application of the optical Fourier transform for analysis of the spatial distribution of collagen fibers in normal and osteopetrotic bone tissue.

Optical Fourier analysis was applied for evaluation of the differences between normal and pathologically changed bone tissue. Collagen fibers were used as markers of bone structure. To prove the usefulness of this technique for objective mathematical analysis of these differences the spatial spatial distribution of collagen fiber bundles was evaluated in normal and osteopetrotic bone. The variation in the spatial distribution of collagen fiber bundles in cross sections of femur diaphyses was evaluated quantitatively by optical diffraction three groups of Fatty Orl-op strain rats, i.e. phenotypically normal animals, osteopetrotic (op/op) mutants and op/op-mutants cured by transplantation of normal syngenic bone marrow. The histological sections of decalcified bone were stained with Sirus-Red and then photographed under polarizing microscope. The Sirus-Red staining was used to enhance the natural birefringency of collagen fibers. Diffractograms obtained from microphotographs of selected bone section areas, i.e. outer and inner circumferential lamellae and haversian bone of normal and cured op/op animals as well as whole cortical bone and woven bone filling the medullary cavities in op/op mutants were analysed separately. Diffractograms contain summarized information on the size and relative position of these structures in histological sections. The radial and angular distribution of light energy were evaluated for each diffractogram with an electronic detector. The obtained distributions were described by several sets of parameters concerning the position, level and shape of local maxima and minima. Out of these parameters five with the highest discriminant power were chosen for further mathematical analysis. This analysis was based on the calculation of the position of centroids in the multidimensional space described by the linear functions of the chosen parameters for each of the evaluated bone section areas. The centroids (mean values of discriminant scores of each group) represent the centers of gravity of the analysed groups, while the separation of the centroids tested by the F-test illustrates the differences between the respective groups of selected bone section areas. A high level of separation of centroids was found when osteopetreotic bone was compared with normal one, what means that the spatial distribution, size and interstructural distances between the collagen fiber bundles in bone tissue in these two groups of animals differ markedly. A similar situation was observed when osteopetrotic bone was compared with bone tissue obtained from op/op mutants cured by transplantation of normal syngenic bone marrow. On the other hand, the level of separation of centroids was low when bone tissue of cured op/op mutants was compared with the control one, a finding which corresponds to the less pronounced histological differences between these two groups of animals. Computer-aided classification on single microphotographs of selected bone section areas to the known a priori type of bone tissue was performed...

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Spatial distribution and discharge characteristics of superior colliculus neurons antidromically activated from the omnipause region in monkey.

One proposed role of the superior colliculus (SC) in oculomotor control is to suppress or excite the activity of brain stem omnipause neurons (OPNs) to initiate or terminate saccades, respectively. Although connections from the SC to the OPNs have been demonstrated, the spatial distribution and discharge characteristics of the projecting neurons from the SC remain unknown. We mapped the spatial distribution of the deeper-layer neurons of the SC by stimulating the region of the OPNs to identify antidromic projections and found that the density of direct projections from the SC to the OPNs was greatest in the most rostral region and decreased gradually for more caudal sites. On the basis of saccade-related discharge characteristics, the antidromically driven neurons were predominantly fixation and buildup neurons. The spatially distributed SC projections to the OPNs and the discharge characteristics of the SC neurons suggest that the direct projections from SC to OPNs are excitatory. Finally, we propose how excitation and disfacilitation from SC activity can contribute to modulation of OPN response and control saccades.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Entomopathogenic nematode (Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae) spatial distribution in turfgrass.

Understanding the temporal and spatial distribution of entomopathogenic nematodes is essential for determining the role of these insect parasites in soil communities and ultimately for their use in suppression of pest insect populations. We measured the vertical and horizontal distribution of endemic populations of entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinernema carpocapsae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora) in turfgrass. Vertical distribution was determined by taking soil cores every 3 h from 05.00 to 23.00 h, over 4 days, and dividing the cores into 8, 1 cm deep sections. Steinernema carpocapsae was recovered primarily near the soil surface: 50% of positive sections were recovered in the thatch or first 1 cm of soil. S. carpocapsae recovery was lower during the middle of the day and none were recovered in the upper section. H. bacteriophora was recovered uniformly throughout the top 8 cm of soil and its vertical distribution did not change over the course of the day. Horizontal distribution was measured as the number of nematodes recovered from cores taken from 12 randomly selected 0.3 x 0.8 m sections from within four 15.3 x 15.3 m plots. Samples were collected biweekly over a 9-month period. H. bacteriophora had a patchier distribution than S. carpocapsae and both nematode species had more patchy distributions then their potential hosts. Our results support the hypothesis that these two species of nematode utilize different foraging strategies; S. carpocapsae primarily a surface adapted ambusher and H. bacteriophora as a cruise forager.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Spatial distribution of late potentials assessed by signal-averaged body surface mapping.

In order to evaluate the spatial location of late potentials (LPs), we designed a new system for the body surface mapping of signal-averaged, filtered ECG using 45 thoracic unipolar leads (5 X 9 array). Signals from patients with old myocardial infarction (MI, N = 8), arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia (N = 1) and dilated cardiomyopathy (N = 2) were amplified and passed through a digital bandpass filter (60-300Hz). Departure maps, LP isopotential maps, and LP30 area maps were generated and superimposed. The LP30 duration was determined as the section between the filtered QRS endpoints and points 30 msec before. Isopotential maps of the LPs showed distinct positive and negative regions. In 8 cases with MI, the extreme was related to the zones indicated by departure maps, and LP30 area maps also corresponded to the departure areas. Most importantly, the spatial distribution for the LP30 area map was different for each type of disease. In conclusion, body surface LP isopotential maps and LP30 area maps may provide useful information concerning the spatial distribution of LPs.

Arrhythmias, Cardiac↗
PubMed1988

Postnatal development of cat hind limb motoneurons. I: Changes in length, branching structure, and spatial distribution of dendrites of cat triceps surae motoneurons.

The postnatal development of length, branching structure, and spatial distribution of dendrites of triceps surae motoneurons, intracellularly stained with horseradish peroxidase, was studied from birth up to 44-46 days of postnatal (d.p.n.) age in kittens and compared with corresponding data from adult cats. The number of dendrites of a triceps surae motoneuron was about 12, and the arborization of each dendrite generated an average of 12-15 terminal branches. There was no net change in the number of dendrites of a neuron or in the degree of branching of the dendrites despite the occurrence of both a transient remodeling of the dendritic branching structure and changes of the spatial distribution of the dendritic branches during postnatal development. The perisomatic territory in the transverse plane occupied by the dendritic branches of a motoneuron increased in parallel with the overall growth of the spinal cord. Thus, the relative size of the dendritic territory in this plane was kept almost constant, whereas dendritic branches projecting in the rostrocaudal direction grew much faster than the spinal cord and also became more numerous. At birth the rostro-caudal dendritic span of individual motoneurons bridged 1:6 to 1:5 of the L7 spinal cord segment length; this figure was 1:3 at 22-24 d.p.n. Hence, in this direction, the growing dendritic branches invaded novel dendritic territories. The change in dendritic branch length from birth to 6 weeks of age corresponded to an average growth rate of 2 to 4 microns per dendritic branch and day, which implies that the total increase in length of the dendrites of a neuron could amount to 1 mm/day. The increase in branch length did not occur in a uniform or random manner; instead, it followed a spatiotemporal pattern with three phases: From birth to 22-24 d.p.n., growth was particularly prominent in greater than or equal to 3rd order preterminal and 2nd through 6th order terminal branches. From 22-24 to 44-46 d.p.n., a large increase in branch length confined to terminal branches of greater than or equal to 3rd branch orders was observed. As indicated by topological analysis, this length increase was probably due in part to a resorption of peripheral dendritic branches during this stage of development. From 44-46 d.p.n. to maturity, the increase of dendritic branch length was restricted to preterminal branches of low (less than or equal to 4th) branch order.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1993

The spatial distribution of attention following an exogenous cue.

Three target-discrimination experiments were conducted to explore the spatial distribution of covert visual attention following an exogenous cue. On each trial, a brief peripheral onset was followed by a target stimulus in an otherwise empty visual field at one of eight (Experiment 1) or one of four (Experiments 2 and 3) possible locations centered at the fixation point. The spatial relation between the cue and the target was manipulated. The main results were that (1) performance was better at the cued location than at another nearby location in the same visual quadrant; (2) performance was not affected by the major horizontal and vertical visual meridians; and (3) performance was affected by the spatial distance between the cued and target locations. Together, the results suggest that the spatial distribution of exogenously oriented attention can be most easily integrated with a simple gradient model.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Spatial distribution of corticospinal potentials following transcranial electric and magnetic stimulation in human spinal cord.

To investigate the spatial distribution of the human corticospinal tract in the spinal cord, evoked spinal cord potentials (ESCPs) following transcranial electrical and magnetic stimulation were recorded simultaneously from both the anterior and posterior epidural space in five anesthetized patients. One ESCP component following transcranial electrical stimulation (D-wave) and at least two ESCP components (initially D-wave and later I-wave) following transcranial magnetic stimulation were recorded in all subjects. The negative peak latency of all the potentials recorded from the posterior epidural space was the same as that recorded anteriorly. The amplitude ratio of the ESCP following electrical stimulation (posterior/anterior) was 1.10+/-0.12, while that of ESCPs following magnetic stimulation was 1.08+/-0.12 (N1) and 1.15+/-0.16 (N2). These results suggest that lateral corticospinal tract descending dorsolateral fasciculus in the spinal cord is main corticospinal pathway and spatial distribution of D and I-waves are similar in the human cervical cord.

Cerebral Cortex↗
PubMed1992

Cyclic GMP-activated channels of salamander retinal rods: spatial distribution and variation of responsiveness.

1. Patch-clamp methods were used to investigate the areal density and spatial location of cyclic GMP-activated channels in the surface membrane of salamander rod outer segments. 2. The density of active channels (i.e. channels able to respond to cyclic GMP) in patches excised from outer segments was determined from the number of active channels, N, and the membrane area, A. N was estimated from the current induced by a saturating concentration of cyclic GMP, while A was estimated from the electrical capacitance of the patch. 3. In patches excised from forty-one isolated outer segments prepared in the light the active channel density varied over a remarkable range: 0.34-629 microns-2, with a mean of 166 microns-2. Density was not correlated with patch area in this or any of the conditions studied. 4. The spatial distribution of open channels on the outer segment of a transducing rod was measured by recording the local dark current at various positions with a loose-patch electrode. The apparent density of open channels varied by only about +/- 50% around the circumference of the outer segment and up and down its length. This indicates that the wide range of densities in excised patches did not result from sampling a non-uniform spatial distribution of channels. 5. Patches excised from sixteen dark-adapted whole cells with healthy appearances and saturating light responses of normal size had active channel densities of 1.1-200 microns-2, with a mean of 60 microns-2. Patches from twenty light-adapted whole cells had similar densities. Many densities from the whole cells were much lower than expected. This, and the wide variation in densities, suggests that obtaining a patch often lowered the density of active channels. The number of channels in a patch was quite stable from 1 s to 30 min after excision, ruling out progressive denaturation or adsorption of channels to the glass as a cause for this effect. 6. The mean active channel density in patches excised from whole cells was lower with calcium present in the external solution than with calcium absent (80 vs. 152 microns-2, n = 36 and 30 respectively). 7. We conclude that copies of the channel protein were present at a density of at least 650 microns-2 in the surface membrane of the outer segment and that the distribution of channels was fairly uniform on a 1 micron scale.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Adaptation, Ocular↗
PubMed1999

Spatial distribution of QT dispersion measured by magnetocardiography under stress in coronary artery disease.

This study investigated changes in spatial distribution of QT duration in patients with and without coronary artery disease (CAD) using magnetocardiography. Thirty-six-channel magnetocardiograms (MCGs) were registered at rest and under stress in 15 patients with chest pain, seven of whom had significant coronary stenosis. QT dispersion (QTd) was calculated for MCG and 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) under both conditions. For MCG, homogeneity of repolarization was measured using a smoothness index (SI). Also, at each registration site, the intraindividual difference between QT at rest and under stress was determined (deltaQT). QTd values as determined by standard 12-lead configurations were not significantly different between groups. MCG QTd values were significantly higher in the CAD group at rest only when all available channels were taken into consideration (P < .05); SI values differed significantly between groups under both conditions (rest, P < .005; stress, P < .01). Good separation between groups was possible using the range of deltaQT (P < .05) and SI (deltaQT) (P < .005). Consideration of the spatial distribution of QTd increases its sensitivity in the detection of CAD, suggesting that CAD involves complex changes in repolarization, not apparent in limited lead sets such as standard 12-lead configurations.

Adrenergic beta-Agonists↗
PubMed1991

Spatial distribution of connexin43, the major cardiac gap junction protein, in the developing and adult rat heart.

The developmental appearance and spatial distribution pattern of gap junctions were studied in prenatal and adult rat hearts. Gap junctions were visualized immunohistochemically with an antibody raised against a unique cytoplasmic epitope of connexin43, and the spatial distribution pattern was determined by three-dimensional reconstruction. The results demonstrate that from embryonic day 13 onward, connexin43 becomes detectable immunohistochemically in the myocardium of atria and ventricles. No expression is initially detectable in the myocardium of the sinus venosus, the sinoatrial node, the posterior wall of the atrium and pulmonary veins, the interatrial septum, the atrioventricular canal, including atrioventricular node and bundle, the interventricular septum, and the outflow tract. The developmental increase in the density of gap junctions in atria and ventricles of prenatal hearts correlates well with the reported developmental increase in conduction velocity. Whereas connexin43 becomes expressed in the derivatives of the sinus venosus (except for the sinoatrial node) and in the subepicardial layer of the ventricular free wall shortly before birth, it remains undetectable in the atrioventricular node and bundle and the proximal part of the ventricular conduction tissue, even in the adult heart. The apparent absence of an abundant expression of connexin43 at a location with a supposedly high conduction velocity (i.e., the atrioventricular bundle and bundle branches) is unexpected. These observations were confirmed in studies of the adult mouse heart, which showed, in addition, that connexin32 is not expressed in any part of the heart.

Aging↗
PubMed2001

Spatial distribution and polarization dependence of the optical near-field in a silicon microfabricated probe.

This paper reports on the spatial distribution and polarization behaviour of the optical near-field at the aperture of a Si micromachined probe. A sub-100 nm aperture at the apex of a SiO2 tip on a Si cantilever was successfully fabricated by selective etching of the SiO2 tip in a buffered-HF solution using a thin Cr film as a mask. The aperture, 10-100 nm in size, can be reproducibly fabricated by optimizing the etching time. The optical throughput of several apertures was measured. For a 100 nm aperture, a throughput of 1% was approved. The probe shows a very high optical throughput owing to the geometrical structure of the tip. The spatial distribution of the near-field light is measured and simulated using a finite difference-time domain method. The polarization behaviour of apertures with different shapes was analysed using a photon counting camera system.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1997

Estimation of the spatial distribution of target cells for radiation pneumonitis in mouse lung.

PURPOSE: Recent studies of Liao et al. and Travis et al. have demonstrated that irradiation of cross-sectional partial volumes contiguous to the base of mouse lung produces a higher incidence of pneumonitis than irradiation of equally sized subvolumes contiguous to the apex. One interpretation of this finding is that the critical target cells for pneumonitis are not distributed uniformly throughout the lung. The purpose of the present study was to test this interpretation by obtaining an estimate of the spatial distribution of the critical target cells for pneumonitis in mouse lung, based on the partial-volume data. METHODS AND MATERIALS: A mathematical model was derived describing the probability of radiation pneumonitis as a function of dose, volume of lung irradiated, and location in the lung of the irradiated subvolume. The model includes a nonparametric description of the spatial target-cell distribution in lung, to be estimated from data. The model was fitted to the lethality data of Liao et al. and Travis et al. to obtain estimates of the proportion of target cells contained in each of various subvolumes of the lung. RESULTS: The results indicate that the critical target cells in mouse lung are concentrated in the base and, to a somewhat lesser extent, in the apex of the lung, with fewer cells in the middle region. The estimated spatial distribution of target cells in mouse lung agrees well with the distribution of alveoli, whose concentration in the midlung is limited by the presence of the major conducting airways. CONCLUSION: Heterogeneity in the spatial distribution of critical target cells in normal tissue implies that the complication probability (NTCP) depends on the location in the organ of the irradiated subvolume, as well as on radiation dose and subvolume size. Calculations using an NTCP model for mouse lung indicate that irradiation of equal subvolumes of lung with the same dose can lead to complication probabilities covering the full range from 0 to 100%, depending only on the location in the lung of the irradiated subvolume.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Spatial distribution of bremsstrahlung in a dual electron beam used in total skin electron treatments: errors due to ionization chamber cable irradiation.

The spatial distribution of the bremsstrahlung dose in total skin electron therapy and large electron fields has been assumed to be symmetric along the match line; however, the measured data in the entire plane have not been available. Das et al. ["Spatial distribution of bremsstrahlung in total skin electron irradiation," Med. Phys. 19, 810 (1992)] reported the ion-chamber measured bremsstrahlung data in the Stanford six-field technique and found that the bremsstrahlung dose profile was 2.5 times greater in the caudal plane (beam facing toward floor) as compared to the cephalic plane. This observation was recently quoted by Klevenhagen [Physics and Dosimetry of Therapy Electron Beams (Medical Physics, Madison, WI, 1993)]. Further study using thermoluminescent dosimeters and careful measurements using ion chambers showed that the bremsstrahlung radiation was indeed symmetric at the match line as theoretically predicted and was not a function of the beam angle or the type of floor. The earlier observations of Das et al. were found to be due to cable effects. Ionization chamber cable response in a large electron field and the associated errors in the bremsstrahlung distribution are presented. It is suggested that a cable-free dosimeter should be used for measuring low levels of bremsstrahlung radiation in large electron fields and at extended distances.

Biophysical Phenomena↗
PubMed1991

Spatial distribution of nociceptive processing in the rat spinal cord.

1. Quantitative 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) experiments were undertaken to determine the spatial distribution of nociceptive responses in the rat spinal cord. Twenty unanesthetized, paralyzed rats with T2 transected spinal cords were divided into groups (n = 4) and stimulated with non-noxious (35 degrees C) or graded noxious temperatures (45 degrees, 47 degrees, 48 degrees, and 49 degrees C). Stimulation was delivered by cyclical immersion of one hind paw in a temperature-controlled water bath. 2. When stimulation began, 50 microCi of 2-DG was injected into the rat, and timed sequential blood samples were drawn to monitor plasma glucose and 2-DG levels. On termination of stimulation, spinal cords were removed, sectioned, and prepared for autoradiography. Local rates of spinal cord metabolism were obtained by microcomputer analysis of autoradiographs. 3. Nociceptive stimulation produced increases in glucose utilization in some of the grey matter laminae previously implicated in nociceptive processing. Within the nociceptive range, 49 degrees and 48 degrees C intensities elicited significantly greater responses than did 45 degrees C stimulation. 4. The rostrocaudal spatial distribution of nociceptive responses was most extensive within laminae V-VI with stimulus-evoked metabolic activity extending 9 mm from L2-L5. Similarly, metabolic increases occurred over 7 mm within lamina VII. In contrast, metabolic activity within the upper dorsal horn (laminae I-IV) extended only 3 mm and was limited to L4. Metabolic patterns within laminae VIII-IX sharply differed from those within other laminae in that no increases occurred within L4, although regions of L3 and L5 were responsive to stimulation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Temporo-spatial distribution of endothelial-monocyte activating polypeptide II, an anti-angiogenic protein, in the mouse embryo.

We describe the temporo-spatial distribution of Endothelial-Monocyte Activating Polypeptide (EMAP) II in order to better understand what role this anti-angiogenic proteins may play in fetal development. In situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, and Western analysis were performed on fetal, neonatal, and adult tissue. EMAP II was first detected only within the central nervous system on 9 days postcoitum (dpc). Subsequently, at 11 through 18 dpc, EMAP II expression was detected in the respiratory, central nervous, cardiovascular, urogenital systems, sense organs, and digestive tract. EMAP II mRNA and protein was localized to the epithelium, with its highest expression in neurons, blood vessels, and at sites of epithelial-mesenchymal interaction. The temporo-spatial distribution of EMAP II suggests that it could play an important role in morphogenesis of the vertebrate embryo.

Angiogenesis Inhibitors↗