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PubMed2005

[Contribution of the study of singing in tune in musically non-expert subjects: importance of short term memory of the pitch (19 to 28 year-old subjects)].

INTRODUCTION: In the singing, which requires precise knowledge of the relevant musical code in use, accuracy of intonation plays a central role. Singing in tune requires to perceive pitch precisely and to memorize it before planning and executing the accurate vocal motion, which allows the exact emission of the correct pitch. OBJECTIVES: Our work investigated the role of short term memory of pitch on singing accuracy. MATERIAL AND METHOD: For that purpose, the experimental protocol of Deutsch (1970) was adapted for a perception and a production task. Participants were selected for their singing accuracy and separated into two groups of ten singing in tune and ten out-of-tune. All participants perceived pitch height exactly and were musically non-experts. For the perception and the production tasks, participants had to either compare or reproduce single pitches or two-pitch-sets. For the perception task, participants had to compare either single pitches or two-pitch patterns, all separated by a five seconds delay. For the production task, participants had to reproduce either single pitches or two-pitch patterns after a five seconds delay. The five seconds delay was either filled with intervening numbers, or with intervening tones, or without any disturbing sound. RESULTS: In perception and production task, the presence of intervening tones disturbs deeply the success of the subjects for every trial. Performance of the in-tune singing group is better for all the exercises while the other group had difficulties on single pitches and two-pitch patterns and was more disturbed by the effect of the intervening material. CONCLUSION: The outcome suggests that short term memory of pitch and accuracy of intonation would be closely linked. Further research needs to specify if that would mean that troubles in singing in tune are a consequence of a low-efficient short term memory of pitch, or if that troubles would hold up the right construction of the short term memory of pitch.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

[Acoustic measurements, perceptive judgements and physiological correlates of the "singing-formant" in male and female opera singers].

At the crossroads of speech and music, this research contribute to a description of the "singing-formant" not only in its acoustic aspects, but also in its physiological and perceptive aspects. From systematic spectral analysis of the phenomenon, the singing-formant is firstly redefined and described from an acoustic point of view, as a reinforcement of extra energy at around 2800 Hz in male subjects and up to 4000 Hz in female ones. What is the perceptive significance of such a phenomenon? Taking into account the voicing context of lyrical singing, we then attempt to show the impact of the singing-formant on the sounds perceived through perception tests. Finally, we attempt to explain its characteristics from a physiological point of view. Vibratory phenomena initially favour the emergence of high-pitched harmonics, richer in the larynx spectra of those of our subjects who have the singing-formant. From a resonance point of view from the analysis of the contours of middle sagittal slices of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the French vowels [a], [i] and [o] spoken and sung by a professional bass singer, the area functions and spectra of sounds given out have been elaborated, thanks to the vocal tract acoustic simulation software of S. Maeda. Hypotheses relating to the nature and position of articulators favourable to the production of the singing-formant can then be given out, and are of great interest for the education and reeducation of the singing voice.

Acoustics↗

PubMed2006

Behavioral and neural lateralization of vision in courtship singing of the zebra finch.

Along with human speech and language processing, birdsong has been one of the best-characterized model systems for understanding the relationship of lateralization of brain function to behavior. Lateralization of song production has been extensively characterized, and lateralization of song perception has begun to be studied. Here we have begun to examine whether behavior and brain function are lateralized in relation to communicative aspects of singing, as well. In order to monitor central brain function, we assayed the levels of several activity dependent immediate early genes after directed courtship singing. Consistent with a lateralization of visual processing during communication, there were higher levels of expression of both egr-1 and c-fos in the left optic tectum after directed singing. Because input from the eyes to the brain is almost completely contralateral in birds, these results suggest that visual input from the right eye should be favored during normal singing to females. Consistent with this, we further found that males sang more when they could use only their right eye compared to when they could use only their left eye. Normal levels of singing, though, required free use of both eyes to view the female. These results suggest that there is a preference for visual processing by the right eye and left brain hemisphere during courtship singing. This may reflect a proposed specialization of the avian left hemisphere in sustaining attention on stimuli toward which a motor response is planned.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Two tests of a stochastic dynamic programming model of daily singing routines in birds.

Many hypotheses have been put forward to account for the dawn chorus in birds. Few of these, however, are able to account for variation in song output over the whole day, or for differences in daily singing routines between species, individuals, seasons and environmental conditions. One hypothesis that does offer a more general explanation is based on a stochastic dynamic programming (SDP) model of daily singing routines. This model relates the relative costs and benefits of feeding and singing at different times of day to the size of a bird's fat reserves and calculates the optimal daily routines of singing and foraging that will maximize the amount that the bird can sing while avoiding starvation. The use of SDP models in behavioural ecology has become well established, but they remain largely untested empirically. I tested two predictions of the SDP model of daily routines of singing, using free-living European robins Erithacus rubecula. The results supported both predictions: (1) food supplementation causing unpredictable short-term increases in foraging success increased subsequent song output; and (2) changes in ambient temperature were positively associated with changes in subsequent song output. Copyright 1999 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2005

Evaluation of support in singing.

This study searched for perceptual, acoustic, and physiological correlates of support in singing. Seven trained professional singers (four women and three men) sang repetitions of the syllable [pa:] at varying pitch and sound levels (1) habitually (with support) and (2) simulating singing without support. Estimate of subglottic pressure was obtained from oral pressure during [p]. Vocal fold vibration was registered with dual-channel electroglottography. Acoustic analyses were made on the recorded samples. All samples were also evaluated by the singers and other listeners, who were trained singers, singing students, and voice specialists without singing education (a total of 63 listeners). We rated both the overall voice quality and the amount of support. According to the results, it seemed impossible to observe any auditory differences between supported singing and good singing voice quality. The acoustic and physiological correlates of good voice quality in absolute values seem to be gender and task dependent, whereas the relative optimum seems to be reached at intermediate parameter values.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Laryngeal biomechanics in Middle Eastern singing.

UNLABELLED: We would like to describe the muscle tension patterns observed in Middle Eastern singing and correlate these findings with demographic data. MATERIAL: A total of 42 candidates were included in this study. The medical charts and video records of their fiberoptic nasopharyngeal laryngoscopy were reviewed. Demographic information included age, sex, history of smoking, history of reflux, history of voice overuse/abuse, status in singing (professional vs. amateur), and style of singing (classical vs pop). Each frame was analyzed for each of the four muscle tension patterns (MTPs): MTP I, MTP II, MTP III, and MTP IV. STATISTICAL METHOD: Nonparametric Mann-Whitney U test was conducted. RESULTS: Twenty-six subjects were professional singers and half sang classical singing. The mean MTP total score for all subjects was 35.58 +/- 21.98% (+/- standard deviation). The highest muscle tension score was obtained for type III pattern followed by type II. There were no statistical differences in the mean MTP total, MTP II, and MTP III scores among the professional singers versus the amateurs. Similar results were obtained when MTP scores were compared by style of singing. CONCLUSION: The vocal technique and status of singing did not seem to affect the muscle tension score.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Velopharyngeal port status during classical singing.

PURPOSE: This investigation was undertaken to examine the status of the velopharyngeal (VP) port during classical singing. METHOD: Using aeromechanical instrumentation, nasal airflow (mL/s), oral pressure (cm H2O), and VP orifice area estimates (cm2) were studied in 10 classically trained sopranos during singing and speaking. Each participant sang and spoke 3 nonsense words-/hampa/, /himpi/, and /humpu/-at 3 loudness levels (loud vs. comfortable vs. soft) and 3 pitches (high vs. comfortable vs. low), using a within-subject experimental design including all possible combinations. RESULTS: In general, nasal airflow, oral pressure, and VP area estimates were significantly greater for singing as compared to speech, and nasal airflow was observed during non-nasal sounds in all participants. Anticipatory nasal airflow was observed in 9 of 10 participants for singing and speaking and was significantly greater during the first vowel in /hampa/ versus /himpi/ and /humpu/. The effect of vowel height on nasal airflow was also significantly influenced by loudness and pitch. CONCLUSIONS: The results from this investigation indicate that at least some trained singers experience regular VP opening during classical singing. Vowel height seems to influence this effect. Future research should consider the effects of voice type, gender, experience level, performance ability, and singing style on VP valving in singers.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Modulation of singing-related activity in the songbird ventral tegmental area by social context.

Successful reproduction depends critically on social interactions. To understand the neural mechanisms underlying such interactions, the study of courtship singing of songbirds has many advantages. Male zebra finches produce a similar song during courtship of a female and while alone. However, singing-related neural activity in the anterior forebrain pathway (AFP), a basal ganglia-forebrain circuit, is markedly dependent on the social context in which singing occurs. Thus, the AFP should receive a signal of social context from outside the song system. Here, we have begun to investigate the neural source of such a signal by recording from neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), which provides dopaminergic input to Area X, a striatal nucleus of the AFP. The level of activity of most VTA neurons we recorded (32/35) was clearly modulated during singing, especially when males sang to a female bird. Modulation of the level of activity could occur in the presence of a female without singing, but typically was further increased when males sang to the female. In addition, activity of some neurons was patterned in relation to song elements, and appeared related to motor output. These results suggest that VTA activity could carry signals related to motivational aspects of singing, as well as more primary sensory and motor signals.

Action Potentials↗

PubMed2003

Control of voice fundamental frequency in speaking versus singing.

In order to investigate control of voice fundamental frequency (F0) in speaking and singing, 24 adults had to utter the nonsense word ['ta:tatas] repeatedly, while in selected trials their auditory feedback was frequency-shifted by 100 cents downwards. In the speaking condition the target speech rate and prosodic pattern were indicated by a rhythmic sequence made of white noise. In the singing condition the sequence consisted of piano notes, and subjects were instructed to match the pitch of the notes. In both conditions a response in voice F0 begins with a latency of about 150 ms. As predicted, response magnitude is greater in the singing condition (66 cents) than in the speaking condition (47 cents). Furthermore the singing condition seems to prolong the after-effect which is a continuation of the response in trials after the frequency shift. In the singing condition, response magnitude and the ability to match the target F0 correlate significantly. Results support the view that in speaking voice F0 is monitored mainly supra-segmentally and controlled less tightly than in singing.

Adult↗

PubMed1994

THE FUNCTIONAL MORPHOLOGY OF SINGING IN THE CRICKET

We describe the functional morphology of the singing apparatus of the cricket. There are three main functional sections of song mechanics, which partly overlap: (1) preparation for singing (lifting of the wings) and the reverse process (lowering of the wings at the end of the song); (2) singing movements (closing and opening of the wings); and (3) movements that adjust the pressure of the plectrum on the file (engagement force). In the case of song preparation, the mesotergum + first axillaries + second axillaries + wings form a functional unit. This unit is moved around a transverse hinge axis, which runs through both fulcrum joints. The muscles suitable for wing lifting are the prothoracic furca muscle and the mesothoracic tegula muscle. Those suitable for wing lowering are the prothoracic dorsolongitudinal muscles and the mesothoracic axillary 4, subalar and furca muscles. Lifting and lowering of the wings are superimposed by bistable mechanisms, which are adjustable (mesothoracic medial dorsolongitudinal muscles). In the case of closing movements (dorsoventral muscles) and opening movements (basalar and subalar muscles), the mesotergum and the wings are moved relative to each other, as for flight movements, but with the wings remaining folded back. The mesotergum is rotated down (closing) and up (opening) around a transverse hinge axis that runs through the caudal joints between the mesotergum and postnota. The path of movement of the wing and its sound-generating structure (i.e. plectrum or file respectively) is determined by an obliquely oriented hinge axis between the mesotergum and first axillary. During opening and closing, the lifted singing position of the wings is stabilized by the medial dorsolongitudinal muscles. We also discuss the role of other muscles that affect singing movements. The third axillary (and its muscle) and the postnotum [and its muscles, the furca muscle and the lateral (short) dorsolongitudinal muscle] are the main elements in the system that adjusts the engagement force of the wings. When left axillary 3 muscle contracts, the medial part of the left third axillary is rotated caudally (in its vertical hinge joint with the first median plate) against the anal part of the wing. The anal part is bent and rotated upwards, increasing the pressure of the left plectrum against the right file. Conversely, the right axillary 3 muscle, which moves the file away from the plectrum, is able to reduce the pressure. The left furca muscle (the antagonist of left axillary 3 muscle) and the left lateral (short) dorsolongitudinal muscle (the 'synergist' of left axillary 3 muscle), and the corresponding muscles on the right side (which have opposite functions), allow a large range of different engagement forces. The results are compared with the work of other authors on the functional morphology of this system and with the results of electrophysiological investigations. New aspects of the evolution of the singing mechanisms are discussed.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1988

Excision of one of two defective P elements as the cause of alternate mutational events (sn+ and sne) of the singed bristle allele snw in Drosophila melanogaster.

The X-linked singed locus is concerned with the bristle phenotype and female sterility, and is known as a hot spot of P element insertion. A moderate allele of singed, singed-weak (snw) (Engels, 1979; 1984) is inserted with P elements. It is used as an index of P element activity, since it mutates at a high frequency to either a more extreme allele, singed-extreme (sne), or to a phenotype that is equivalent to the wild type (sn+) when an autonomous P element exists. We show here that snw is inserted with two defective P elements in reverse orientation, and the two alternate mutational events (sn+ and sne) are caused by the excision of one or the other of the P elements present in the singed gene. It is interesting that sn+ and sne are inserted with a single P element in the same position, but show very different phenotypes. The insertional sites of P elements in the singed locus possibly contain an unidentified repetitive sequence, which is repeated dozens of times per haploid genome of the wild-type strain Canton-S.

Alleles↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Does choir singing cause noise-induced hearing loss?

Although health problems in musicians have been previously reported; not much is known about noise-induced hearing loss due to choir singing. However, there are data to show that peak levels of more than 110 dB SPL are produced in choir singing, and major parts of sound energy can be found below 1 kHz and even 500 Hz but not below 100 Hz. To find out about possible hearing loss due to professional choir singing, we measured the hearing threshold level of 62 choir singers in a large opera choir. Most publications about noise-induced hearing loss report that the high-frequency region is impaired most. However, in our study the low frequency region was affected most, when compared with normative data (especially ISO 7029). Control groups of women and men with normal auditory function did not show pure-tone hearing thresholds different from ISO 7029. The permanent threshold shifts at 250 Hz and above are most likely noise induced with choir singing as noise source. However, hearing losses at 125 Hz and possibly partial at 250 Hz are caused by some other effect. An (unproven) hypothesis is that singing might lead to increased endolymph pressure, and thus might cause hearing loss especially in the low-frequency region. Whether more choirs show similar hearing impairment and whether singing raises cerebrospinal fluid pressure will be the subject of further investigations.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Influence of caregiver singing and background music on posture, movement, and sensory awareness in dementia care.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Previous research suggested caregiver singing could influence persons with severe dementia to communicate with increased competence, to cease aggression, and to cease disruptive screaming, while at the same time they seemed to understand what was going on when being cared for during morning care sessions. The aim of this study was to illuminate the posture, body movements, and sensory awareness of patients with dementia during three types of morning care sessions with professional caregivers: (a) the usual morning care situation, (b) a caring session in which familiar background music was played, and (c) a caring session in which the caregiver sang to and/or with the patient throughout. Nine patients with late-stage dementia and 5 professional caregivers participated in this study, and 27 sessions were videotaped (9 patients x 3 caring situations). DATA COLLECTION AND METHOD: Data collection was done by means of video recording and the data were analyzed using qualitative content analysis. RESULTS: During the usual caring situation, patients demonstrated slumped posture, sluggish and asymmetric motion, listlessness, minimal awareness of both egocentric space and the physical environment, and a poor ability to perform to completion activities necessary for personal care. Both background music playing and caregiver singing had strong influences on the body and on sensory awareness. Patients had straightened posture, stronger and more symmetric movements, and a greatly increased awareness of themselves and their environment. Patients appeared to regain skills necessary for daily living, and demonstrated that they could perform tasks with intention, purpose, and competence. Caregiver singing, in particular, was very effective at drawing out capabilities that appeared to be lost in these patients. In addition, caregiver singing elicited a larger degree of mutuality in the interaction between patient and caregiver than was seen with background music. DISCUSSION: These results provide further support for the use of caregiver singing in dementia care, and the findings on how caregiver singing can be used to help in dementia caring situations are discussed.

Activities of Daily Living↗

PubMed1999

Seasonal patterns of singing in the willow warbler: evidence against the fertility announcement hypothesis.

Males of many bird species use a variety of behaviour patterns that reduce their chances of being cuckolded. The 'fertility announcement' hypothesis (Møller 1991, American Naturalist, 138, 994-1014) proposes that song might be one such paternity guard. According to this hypothesis, paired males would announce their female's fertile status by singing. This has been interpreted as an honest signalling, evolutionarily stable strategy. Contrary to the predictions of this hypothesis, male willow warblers, Phylloscopus trochilus, sang very little when females were fertile. Intrusions by other males in the fertile period were not less common when males sang at higher rates. Mate guarding and singing are best interpreted as two conflicting behaviours during this period, the former being directed to the fertile female and the latter to attracting a second female, or an extrapair female. A survey of recent studies suggests that, in most passerine species studied, males do not sing during the fertile period of their females. The different conclusions of Møller (1991) are probably due to his use of population-wide estimates of the timing of singing behaviour and egg laying. Breeding asynchronies within populations would be responsible for the apparent matching between the peaks of singing activity and fertility. Copyright 1999 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1994

Gender differences in laterality patterns for speaking and singing.

This study examined behaviors reflecting cerebral organization of speaking and singing in normal college students. The investigation focused on whether differences existed in the laterality patterns of two singing tasks and one speaking task in males and females. Performance was measured on a verbal/manual time-sharing paradigm, coupling finger tapping with three vocal tasks (speaking, singing a rote song, singing up and down a diatonic five note scale). Females exhibited less variation than males in mean tapping rates and laterality scores across all three vocal tasks, thus indicating that gender most likely influences lateralization of vocal tasks. Bilateral integration was indicated for both males and females during singing up/down the aforementioned scale. These findings suggest differential involvement of both hemispheres in processing musical functions.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Preparing the singing voice specialist revisited.

In review of singing voice specialist preparation, discussion can be chronicled prior to the establishment of Arts Medicine in 1987. Although discussion began in 1984 (and earlier), no formal academic program currently exists to train the singing voice specialist. The need now is greater than ever for a formal program of study to prepare a person who seeks to be a singing voice specialist. The question of adequate preparation continues to be in need of an appropriate answer because no formal training programs or fellowships are available. It is essential to first define the role of singing voice specialists and the populations that they will encounter. To meet the needs of a diverse population, care of the professional voice demands cross-disciplinary training. Knowledge from the fields of music, science, medicine and communication disorders and experience/observation, clinical preparation, and research would provide for optimal preparation. To meet this need, development of a Masters degree program seems highly desirable. The structure of such a program is proposed, along with specific requirements outlined from the music and singing voice pathology components for a Masters Degree in Arts Medicine with a concentration in voice.

Curriculum↗

PubMed2005

The activity patterns of neck muscles in professional classical singing.

The study aimed to characterize the activity patterns of neck muscles during classical singing. Muscle usage during inhalation and phonation and the relationship to changes in pitch and vocal loudness was of particular interest. Five professional opera singers (2 males, 3 females) participated. Surface electromyographic activity (EMG) was recorded from the upper trapezius (TR), the sternocleidomastoideus (STM), and the scalenus (SC) muscles and the muscles in the posterior neck region (PN). EMG activity in TR and STM was lowered by EMG biofeedback (BF), and the possible effect of lowered EMG activity in these muscles on the EMG activity of SC and PN was analyzed. A strain gauge sensor recorded the chest circumference of the thorax. Three singing tasks were performed. Each task was performed three times with variation in vocal loudness and pitch. After the first performance of the singing tasks, the BF session was carried out. Thereafter muscle activity was recorded in repeat performances of the same tasks, and the EMG amplitude of all muscles was compared before and after BF. We conclude that STM and SC showed correlated activity patterns during inhalation and phonation by classical singers. Second, substantial muscle activity was observed in PN during inhalation and phonation. BF performed on TR and STM had a secondary effect of lowering EMG activity in SC and PN. The activity of all neck muscles was markedly elevated when singing in the highest pitch. There was no consistent task-based difference in EMG amplitude for the other singing tasks.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Neck and shoulder muscle activity and thorax movement in singing and speaking tasks with variation in vocal loudness and pitch.

The aim of this study was to examine respiratory phasing and loading levels of sternocleidomastoideus (STM), scalenus (SC), and upper trapezius (TR) muscles in vocalization tasks with variation in vocal loudness and pitch. Eight advanced singing students, aged 22 to 28 years, participated. Surface electromyographic (EMG) activity was recorded from STM, SC, and TR. Thorax movement was detected by two strain gauge sensors placed around the upper (upper TX) and lower (lower TX) thorax. A glissando and simplified singing and speaking tasks were performed. Sustained vowels /a:-i-ae-o:/ were sung in a glissando from lowest to highest pitch (mixed voice/falsetto) back to lowest pitch and in short singing sequences at comfortable, low, and high pitches. The same vowels were spoken softly and loudly for about the same length. The subjects inhaled between the vowels. It was concluded that the inspiratory phased STM and SC muscles produced a counterforce to compression of upper TX at high pitches in glissando. STM and SC were activated to higher levels during phonation than in inhalation. As breathing demands were reduced, STM and SC activity was lowered and the respiratory phasing of peak amplitude changed to inhalation. TR contributed to exhalation in demanding singing with long breathing cycles, but it was less active in singing tasks with short breathing cycles and was essentially inactive in simplified speaking tasks.

Adult↗