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PubMed2001

Group process and group phenomena on the Internet.

This article identifies group processes and group phenomena in discussion lists on the Internet and examines the differences and similarities with the processes in small and large groups. Group dynamics and phenomena, such as boundaries, cohesion, transference, scapegoating, and the leader's role are addressed. Large group features, such as alienation, vulnerability, and the vast amount of issues discussed in parallel are described. There are similarities between the discussion list and small groups on issues of cohesion and group norms, and in the psychological mechanisms of transference and scapegoating. There are differences regarding the contract, boundaries, leaving the group, and extra-group socialization. Although many of the phenomena described resemble a large group, a discussion list on the Internet maintains the illusion of being a small group and frequently acts like one. While a virtual therapy group would be somewhat different from a real group, it could nonetheless be useful.

Group Processes↗
PubMed1991

Biological impact of social disruption resulting from epidemic disease.

Whereas previous research on the disruptive effects of epidemic disease have focused on the ways in which epidemics affect social structure and function, this study focuses on the biological impact of social disruption. The hypothesis is that social disruption resulting from the occurrence of epidemic disease increases the biological impact of the epidemic, as assessed by disease incidence. This hypothesis is explored in terms of a "level of response" model, borrowed from Slobodkin and Rapoport (Q. Rev. Biol. 49:181-200, 1974). The Human Area Relations File (HRAF) provides ethnographic reports of social responses to epidemics. The most frequently reported response in the HRAF is flight or migration away from the locus of the epidemic, followed in frequency by extraordinary preventive and/or therapeutic measures and scapegoating. The model proposes a continuum of responses beginning with responses that are already part of the indigenous response to disease and proceeding through disruptive processes, including flight and rejection of authority systems. Social disruption increases the biological impact of epidemics by robbing the social group of important participants, dismantling public health programs, or producing general economic hardship. The model proposes a scheme for identification of situations under which particular social group responses are "biologically appropriate."

Adaptation, Biological↗
PubMed2003

Neutralization theory and the denial of risk: some evidence from cannabis use among French adolescents.

In contemporary societies, risk culture and risk profiling lead to the stigmatization of unhealthy behaviours as 'risky'. Risk denial theory refers to a cognitive way to deal with risky behaviours and can be considered as an updated variant of Sykes and Matza's neutralization theory. People neutralize the 'risky' label using specific techniques that must be added to those previously enlisted by Sykes and Matza. This paper introduces and discusses three techniques of risk denial: scapegoating, self-confidence and comparison between risks. As it is usually defined and studied as a 'risky behaviour', cannabis use provides a relevant example to illustrate these types of risk denial, thanks to various ethnographic studies (including Becker's seminal work on marijuana smokers) and quantitative French data from the 1999 European School Survey on Alcohol and Other Drugs (ESPAD). In order to deny the 'risky' label, cannabis users scapegoat 'hard drugs' users, they emphasize their own ability to control their consumption personally, or they compare cannabis and alcohol risks. The paper concludes with suggestions for further analyses of risk denial.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

The biological impact of social responses to the AIDS epidemic.

This paper examines the extent to which social responses to the AIDS epidemic contribute to the continued transmission of the virus, thereby exacerbating the biological impact of the epidemic. Following the model of McGrath (1991), social responses to AIDS are examined in terms of their impact on potential transmission of HIV. Responses are evaluated using established criteria for decreasing disease transmission: eliminating the source of infection, eliminating contact necessary for infection, decreasing susceptibility of hosts, or decreasing the infectivity of infectious persons. The most frequent responses to AIDS have been scapegoating, resulting in ostracism, stigma, and blame; resignation; use of alternative therapies; political mobilization; and research. With the exception of political mobilization in some communities, the social responses to AIDS have not decreased the biological impact of the epidemic, and, therefore, may not be "biologically appropriate".

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed1979

A stepfamily in formation.

The increasing incidence of stepparenthood requires that mental health clinicians develop skills for helping members of two families form a viable new family unit. This paper conceptualizes stages in the development of the reconstituted family. Case material describes a scapegoated child as the focus of conflict in one family's progression through these stages.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1980

Ethical problems in feeding patients with advanced dementia.

Aged patients with dementia if not stricken by an acute disease sooner or later approach a terminal phase that is distinguished by a failure of spoon feeding. This condition induces great anxiety in the workers who care for these patients. The interaction between patient and care-worker during spoon-feeding failure is described by the psychological model of double-binding. Two serious consequences of double-binding are the distancing of the care-workers from the patient and scapegoating among the care-workers. It is essential that the pressure of double-bindings in the wards should be reduced.

Aged↗
PubMed1976

The role of cognitive and situational variables in aggression toward homosexuals.

The relationship of several antecedents of aggression toward homosexuals was investigated. Attitudes toward homosexuality, perceived similarity to the target homosexual, and type of prior contact with the target homosexual were found to interact in influencing such aggressiveness. The implication of these findings to the "personal threat" and "scapegoating" hypotheses of aggression toward homosexuals is discussed.

Aggression↗
PubMed1999

Psychosocial adversities underestimated in hyperkinetic children.

Abnormal psychosocial factors, assessed both clinically and by raters blind to clinical presentation, were examined in 21 hyperkinetic and 26 conduct disordered children. Blind raters found the frequency of psychosocial adversities to be similar in the two disorders. By contrast the clinical rater, who did know the diagnosis of patients, rated adverse psychosocial situations as much lower in hyperkinetic children than in children with conduct disorder. Logistic regression showed, particularly in the category of abnormal intrafamilial relationships (Lack of warmth in parent child relationship, Hostility or scapegoating of the child, Intrafamilial discord among adults), effects of the interaction between rater and knowledge of diagnosis. Clinical raters should be aware of abnormal psychosocial situations in hyperkinetic children and assess possible adverse effects on parents and children. Researchers should be aware of a possible bias in research interviews.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Suicidal action and sacrificial violence: systemic and anthropological hypothesis].

Studies concerning suicidal behavior show practical limitations of epidemiology and risk factor analysis. Suicidal behaviour is usually considered as a consequence of mental disease, but suicide cannot be studied without addressing the context of the acting-out. Suicide attempt can be interpreted as a thematic relational act, in which the central phenomenon is anger. Using the anthropological hypothesis of scapegoating described by René Girard and a theoretical systemic approach, we propose a vision of suicide attempts in a micro-social context, offering a new interpretation of the acting-out. Application of the hypothesis to the suicidal context shows that suicidal behavior may be considered as a relationship modality. The understanding of rivalry mechanisms and integration of care in a context which takes account of the complexity of suicidal behaviour offers the possibility of developing potentially valuable approaches to prevention.

Acting Out↗
PubMed1979

The "cooling out" process in a complex organization.

In a sequence of events described as the "cooling out" process, an administrative conflict snowballed to an irrevocable stage resulting in an employee's dismissal. Such scapegoating reduces friction in the organization structure, but does not identify and resolve problems.

Conflict, Psychological↗
PubMed1989

A case of administrative conflict: observations on the dynamic framework.

A situation is described of suddenly erupting conflict in an interdisciplinary meeting of psychiatric hospital staff. The conflict is related to the systemic impact of recent changes in psychiatric hospital practice. The observed affect and interpersonal dynamics are reviewed in the context of different conceptual frameworks. These include Maslow's hierarchy of needs model, the group focal conflict paradigm and the concept of scapegoating. The use and integration of these three approaches toward understanding affectively laden administrative conflict are discussed. Specific reference is made to the utilization of such understanding in developing leadership skills in a multi-disciplinary mental health setting.

Conflict, Psychological↗
PubMed2005

Munchausen's syndrome by proxy and Lyme disease: medical misogyny or diagnostic mystery?

Chronic, tertiary Lyme disease, a vector-borne infection most accurately designated neuroborreliosis, is often misdiagnosed. Infectors of the human brain, Lyme borrelial spirochetes are neurotropic, similar to the spirochetes of syphilis. Symptoms of either disease may be stable and persistent, transient and inconsistent or severe yet fleeting. Characteristics may be incompatible with established knowledge of neurological dermatomes, appearing to conventional medical eyes as anatomically impossible, thus creating confusion for doctors, parents and child patients. Physicians unfamiliar with Lyme patients' shifting, seemingly vague, emotional, and/or bizarre-sounding complaints, frequently know little about late-stage spirochetal disease. Consequently, they may accuse mothers of fabricating their children's symptoms--the so-called Munchausen's by proxy (MBP) "diagnoses." Women, following ancient losses of feminine authority in provinces of religion, ethics, and healing - disciplines comprising known fields of early medicine, have been scapegoated throughout history. In the Middle Ages, women considered potentially weak-minded devil's apprentices became victims of witch-hunts throughout Europe and America. Millions of women were burned alive at the stake. Modern medicine's tendency to trivialize women's "offbeat" concerns and the fact that today's hurried physicians of both genders tend to seek easy panaceas, frequently result in the misogyny of mother-devaluation, especially by doctors who are spirochetally naïve. These factors, when involving cases of cryptic neuroborreliosis, may lead to accusations of MBP. Thousands of children, sick from complex diseases, have been forcibly removed from mothers who insist, contrary to customary evaluations, that their children are ill. The charges against these mothers relate to the idea they believe their children sick to satisfy warped internal agendas of their own. "MBP mothers" are then vilified, frequently jailed and publicly shamed for the "sins" of advocating for their children. In actuality, many such cases involve an unrecognized Lyme borreliosis causation that mothers may insist is valid despite negative tests. Doctors who have utilized MBP tactics against mothers are likely to be unaware that in advanced borreliosis, seronegativity is often the rule, a principle disagreed upon by its two extant, published, peer-reviewed, Standards of Care. These are guidelines for Lyme disease management--the older system questioning the existence of persistent Lyme and the newer system relying on established clinical criteria. Mothers must be free to obtain the family's preferred medical care by choosing between physicians practicing within either system without fear of reprisal. Doctors and mothers together may then explore medical options with renewed mutual respect toward the best interest of children's health.

Diagnostic Errors↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Psychosocial issues affecting crews during long-duration international space missions.

Psychosocial issues can negatively impact on crew performance and morale during long-duration international space missions. Major psychosocial factors that have been described in anecdotal reports from space and in studies from analog situations on Earth include: 1) crew heterogeneity due to gender differences, cultural issues, and work experiences and motivations; 2) language and dialect variations; and 3) task versus supportive leadership roles. All of these factors can lead to negative sequelae, such as intra-crew tension and cohesion disruptions. Specific sequelae that can result from single factors include subgrouping and scapegoating due to crew heterogeneity; miscommunication due to major or subtle language differences; and role confusion, competition, and status leveling due to inappropriate leadership role definition. It is time to conduct research exploring the impact of these psychosocial factors and their sequelae on space crews during actual long-duration international space missions.

Aerospace Medicine↗
PubMed1997

Psychosocial value of space simulation for extended spaceflight.

There have been over 60 studies of Earth-bound activities that can be viewed as simulations of manned spaceflight. These analogs have involved Antarctic and Arctic expeditions, submarines and submersible simulators, land-based simulators, and hypodynamia environments. None of these analogs has accounted for all the variables related to extended spaceflight (e.g., microgravity, long-duration, heterogeneous crews), and some of the stimulation conditions have been found to be more representative of space conditions than others. A number of psychosocial factors have emerged from the simulation literature that correspond to important issues that have been reported from space. Psychological factors include sleep disorders, alterations in time sense, transcendent experiences, demographic issues, career motivation, homesickness, and increased perceptual sensitivities. Psychiatric factors include anxiety, depression, psychosis, psychosomatic symptoms, emotional reactions related to mission stage, asthenia, and postflight personality, and marital problems. Finally, interpersonal factors include tension resulting from crew heterogeneity, decreased cohesion over time, need for privacy, and issues involving leadership roles and lines of authority. Since future space missions will usually involve heterogeneous crews working on complicated objectives over long periods of time, these features require further study. Socio-cultural factors affecting confined crews (e.g., language and dialect, cultural differences, gender biases) should be explored in order to minimize tension and sustain performance. Career motivation also needs to be examined for the purpose of improving crew cohesion and preventing subgrouping, scapegoating, and territorial behavior. Periods of monotony and reduced activity should be addressed in order to maintain morale, provide meaningful use of leisure time, and prevent negative consequences of low stimulation, such as asthenia and crew member withdrawal. Leadership roles and lines of authority need to be studied further to understand the factors leading to status leveling, leadership competition, and role confusion. Finally, the relationship between crews and ground personnel should be characterized in order to minimize the displacement of anger and tension to the outside, to counter the effects of inter-group miscommunications, and to develop support strategies that can help to counter in-group/out-group conflicts. Ground-based space simulations still have a role to play in terms of understanding the impact of these factors and ways of dealing with them. In particular, issues involving language, cultural differences, gender biases, career motivation, monotonous conditions, use of free time, leadership, lines of authority, and the relationship between crews and outside monitoring personnel need to be further characterized and examined under controlled conditions. Until such time as these factors can be studied directly in space, simulations provide an opportunity to learn more about these psychosocial issues and to plan ways of minimizing their negative consequences during actual space missions.

Career Choice↗
PubMed1997

Etiology of the masochistic and narcissistic personality.

It is the premise of this article, that at least in some instances, narcissistic and masochistic characters may develop from different role assignments in the same family (i.e., families with narcissistic dynamics). It is hypothesized that the child who later becomes narcissistic becomes assigned the role of the good child, remains merged with the mother, and becomes her ego-ideal. In contrast, the mother projects the egodystonic aspects of herself onto the child who becomes scapegoated, more willful, and defiant and eventually masochistic. The author has observed among her patients that some variables that seem to have contributed to the particular role assignment of a given child in the family are birth order, temperament, gender, resemblance to grandparents or significant objects in parents' life, and/or innate talents, gifts, and differences. It is suggested that the presence of narcissistic dynamics in the families of both masochistic and narcissistic characters may account for the similarities between the two character structures previously noted in the literature. It is obviously a limitation of this article that conclusions about family members (i.e., mothers and siblings) are based on reports of patients during long-term psychoanalytic treatment rather than direct observation. It is thus recommended that future research efforts attempt to verify these hypotheses through longitudinal family studies.

Birth Order↗
PubMed1996

Cultural-societal roots of violence. The examples of genocidal violence and of contemporary youth violence in the United States.

Widespread violence in a society must have its origins in cultural characteristics, current societal conditions, or both. In this article, the cultural, societal, and psychological origins of two very different forms of violence are examined. A conception of the origins of genocide and mass killing is briefly presented, with the Holocaust and the violence in the former Yugoslavia as supporting evidence. Difficult life conditions give rise to scapegoating, destructive ideologies, and the evolution of increasing violence against a designated enemy. Cultural characteristics that make this process more or less probable are described. This is followed by a presentation of the socialization experiences of children that generate youth violence. To explain the increase in youth violence, the presence of difficult life conditions in the United States is noted (due primarily to substantial social change). The effects of difficult life conditions, cultural characteristics, and social conditions such as poverty and discrimination against minority groups on family life and parenting are described. Similarities and differences in the origins of the two forms of violence are examined. The role of unfulfilled or frustrated basic human needs in generating violence is stressed, and conditions and actions required to reduce violence are proposed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Extracurricular involvement among affluent youth: a scapegoat for "ubiquitous achievement pressures"?

It has been suggested that over-scheduling of upper-class youth might underlie the high distress and substance use documented among them. This assumption was tested by considering suburban 8th graders' involvement in different activities along with their perceptions of parental attitudes toward achievement. Results indicated negligible evidence for deleterious effects of high extracurricular involvement per se. Far more strongly implicated was perceived parent criticism for both girls and boys as well as the absence of after-school supervision. Low parent expectations connoted significant vulnerability especially for boys. The findings indicate that at least among early adolescents, converging scientific and media reports may have scapegoated extracurricular involvements, to some degree, as an index of ubiquitous achievement pressures in affluent communities.

Achievement↗
PubMed1993

The experience of a community characterized by violence: implications for nursing.

Social situations make a person vulnerable to mental illness. These situations include circumstances such as poverty, family instability and inadequate nutrition. A combination of these circumstances predisposes exposed people to developing unhealthy ways of coping with stress. Violence is seen as a way of managing stress, but also as a factor causing stress. An example of unhealthy ways of stress management in the current South African society is the violence that leads to unrest which has affected different communities in a short space of time. The aim of this study was to explore the experience of a community exposed to violence and to identify implications for nursing. An exploratory contextual study was undertaken with the purpose of generating meaning regarding the experience of a community characterized by violence. The phenomenological method of interviewing was used to gather data. The target population consisted of a township community of 228,000. Ten respondents were interviewed in total, selected by the convenience purposive sampling method through intermediaries. The interviews were recorded on tape and later transcribed verbatim. Data were analysed by the method of content analysis. The results were centred on the respondents' and their families' experiences of violence since March 1990. The results indicated four types of experiences for all people exposed to violence: psychological, spiritual, physical and behavioural experiences. The experiences of interactions with the internal environment (psychological, spiritual and physical experience) were predominantly negative, except for only two positive spiritual experiences (improvements in the people's faith and in the employer-employee relationships). On the other hand, experiences of interactions between the internal and external environments, namely behavioural experiences, were both negative and positive. The negative experiences included pretence, thuggery, scapegoating and harassment. The positive experiences included solidarity, bravery and increased appreciation. The presence of positive experiences in both environments brought about new insights; that is, that even though most of their internal environment and part of their external environment is bleak and hopeless, the victims of violence still have the will to survive and live a normal life like other people. This positive attitude supplies the psychiatric nurse with a point of entry to bring about positive change that acts as a support for the community exposed to violence. Possibilities of applying the results of this study in education, practice and research in the health field became evident.

Adolescent↗