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PubMed2001

Clinical evaluation of established optimal immobilizing doses of medetomidine-ketamine in captive reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate clinical effects and repeatability of clinical effects for an optimal immobilizing dose of a combination of medetomidine hydrochloride (MED) and ketamine hydrochloride (KET) in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus). ANIMALS: 12 healthy 6- to 8-month old reindeer. PROCEDURE: Each reindeer was immobilized once with an initial dose (combination of 0.06 mg of MED/kg of body weight and 0.3 mg KET/kg) and twice with an optimal dose of MED-KET. Reversal was achieved with 5 mg of atipamezole/mg of MED injected 45 minutes after MED-KET administration. Observational variables were recorded. Oxygen saturation of arterial hemoglobin measured by pulse oximetry (Spo2), respiratory rate (RR), heart rate (HR), and rectal temperature (RT) were recorded 10, 25, and 40 minutes after immobilization. RESULTS: Mean time to first sign of sedation and time until a recumbent animal lifted its head were significantly reduced for reindeer given the optimal dose, compared with the initial dose. Mean Spo2 remained > 90% during initial immobilization; this value was significantly lower for the optimal dose, but increased during immobilization from 85 to 89%. At all doses, RR increased significantly throughout the recorded period; however, RT and HR were constant. Except for time until reindeer stood, all time variables, Spo2, RR, RT, and HR were repeatable. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: mmobilization of captive reindeer achieved by use of the optimal dose established here is clinically acceptable, although Spo2 should be carefully monitored. Administration of the optimal dose produced the same clinical effect during repeated immobilization of the same reindeer.

Adrenergic alpha-Agonists↗
PubMed2004

Induction of neutralizing antibodies in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) after administration of a killed West Nile virus vaccine.

In 2002, West Nile virus (WNV) infection with clinical neurologic disease and encephalomyelitis was described in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). The susceptibility of reindeer to WNV prompted questions concerning vaccination of reindeer to prevent WNV infection. Between January and April 2003, eleven 2-4-yr-old, castrated male reindeer, some of which had antibody titers suggestive of prior exposure to WNV, were vaccinated three times at 4-wk intervals with a commercially available vaccine approved for use in horses. No adverse reactions to vaccination were noted. All vaccinated reindeer developed high neutralizing antibody titers to WNV, as determined by the plaque reduction neutralization test. Reindeer without antibody titers from previous natural exposure to WNV required a primary vaccination and one or two booster vaccinations for development of neutralizing antibody to WNV. Protective efficacy of vaccination was not evaluated. Vaccination of reindeer for WNV may be warranted in certain circumstances combined with management practices to limit exposure to potential vectors.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Crowding and winter emergency feeding as predisposing factors for kerato-conjunctivitis in semi-domesticated reindeer in Norway.

Due to the hard environmental and climatic situation in late winter 1999, a herd of about 200 free-ranging, semi-domesticated reindeer was gathered in a paddock in northern Norway for emergency feeding. About the same number of reindeer was not corralled but supplementary fed on their winter pastures. The fodder was of relatively good quality but very dusty and fed in a very dry environment. Six weeks later, an outbreak of eye-infection was diagnosed in one third of the corralled reindeer; mild symptoms were observed in most of them, but 11 animals showed severe signs of disease. No signs of disease were found in the non-corralled animals. Ten reindeer died through emaciation, the eleventh was sacrificed. Histopathological diagnosis of two severely affected eyes revealed a severe purulent kerato-conjunctivitis with bacteria and plant particles embedded in purulent exudates on the cornea and conjunctiva. In one eye from the two most affected animals Actinomyces pyogenes, coagulase-negative Staphylococci and Escherichia coli and in the other one Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were found. The bacteria encountered in this study are not considered the primary cause of disease. They seem rather to be opportunistic infectious agents of eyes that have been irritated mechanically through exposure to dusty fodder in a dry environment. The stress through unfamiliar corralling of the reindeer, that followed an insufficient fodder supply, could be considered as an additional infection supporting factor. This case-report emphasises on the importance of different factors involved in favouring outbreaks of disease in reindeer, under intensified husbandry conditions. Even though crowding and emergency feeding may be, at certain circumstances, the only means of survival for reindeer, a negative impact of implied crowding diseases on their productivity, must be considered, as well.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1993

Transmission of brucellosis from reindeer to cattle.

Sixteen reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) naturally infected with Brucella suis biovar 4 were penned with 6 male and 2 female cattle for 30 days, then removed and euthanatized. During this period, 5 reindeer had fawns, and 2 reindeer aborted. Brucella suis biovar 4 was recovered from all adult reindeer at necropsy. Nine reindeer had B suis biovar 4 in uterus, udder, and/or milk. The cattle were euthanatized 2 months after the reindeer were removed. Clinical or pathologic signs of disease were not observed in the cattle. Brucella suis biovar 4 was isolated from 2 male and from both female cattle at necropsy. The female cattle had positive reactions on the buffered plate antigen test, brucellosis card test, tube agglutination test, complement fixation test, and indirect enzyme immunoassay for most of the experiment, but the males had inconsistent reactions on these tests. The indirect enzyme immunoassay was the only test to detect all cattle from which bacteria were cultured. This study revealed that caution is warranted before moving reindeer or caribou into areas of traditional agriculture.

Abortion, Veterinary↗
PubMed2000

The impact of Chernobyl fallout on the Southern Saami reindeer herders of Norway in 1996.

The reindeer-herding Southern Saamis, from Central Norway, were the population group exposed to the highest levels of radioactivity in Norway, following the Chernobyl accident. Radiocesium whole-body contents and dietary habits have been investigated regularly in this population group since 1987. Meat of semi-domesticated reindeer is important in their diet, and earlier studies have shown that contaminated reindeer meat contributes about 90% to the total intake of radiocesium. A major part of the group also consumes wild food products like game, freshwater fish, mushrooms, and berries. The application of countermeasures has been a common practice for the reindeer herders since the Chernobyl accident. According to the interviews in 1996, the three most commonly used and socially accepted countermeasures were (1) selection of reindeer for consumption after live monitoring of radiocesium concentrations; (2) selection of reindeer for consumption from less contaminated grazing areas; and (3) clean feeding of animals before slaughtering. Despite these countermeasures about one third of the population still have reduced reindeer meat intake because of the Chernobyl fallout. In 1996, the average whole body concentration of 137Cs for this population was found to be 88+/-7 Bq kg(-1) for women and 164+/-11 Bq kg(-1) for men(arithmetic mean +/- standard error). This is approximately half of the whole-body concentration of 137Cs measured in the same population in 1990-1991.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Polyphyletic origin of the small-bodied, high-arctic subspecies of tundra reindeer (Rangifer tarandus).

In order to investigate the origin of the three small-bodied, high-arctic subspecies of reindeer, Rangifer tarandus pearyi (the Canadian Archipelago), R. t. eogroenlandicus (East Greenland, extinct since 1900 AD), and R. t. platyrhynchus (Svalbard), samples were collected at nine localities from all six of the currently recognized subspecies of the tundra reindeer. A 203-bp-long fragment of the mitochondrial control region was sequenced from 113 reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). The now extinct subspecies R. t. eogroenlandicus was for the first time included in a molecular study; DNA was extracted from four museum specimens (skins and bones) and successfully sequenced. A polyphyletic origin for the three subspecies of small-bodied, high-arctic reindeer is suggested, with R. t. pearyi and R. t. eogroenlandicus being closely related and probably having evolved in high-arctic North America and R. t. platyrhynchus from Svalbard having evolved from Eurasian large-bodied reindeer. The small-bodied, high-arctic reindeer presumably represent ecotypes that have evolved convergently in similar high-arctic environments.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Influence of diet on fatty acids and tocopherols in M. longissimus dorsi from reindeer.

Our aim was to compare the effects of two pelleted diets containing differing FA composition with natural lichen pasture on reindeer's meat FA composition. In addition we wanted to increase the knowledge about reindeer FA metabolism and the effect of animal sex and age on FA composition in reindeer muscle. The trial included five reindeer groups: three grazing, consisting of adult males, adult females, and calves; and two groups of calves fed conventional pellets (CPD) and pellets containing crushed linseed (LPD), respectively, for two months before slaughter. Differences between male and female animals were mainly found in the neutral lipid fraction and related to fatness. Calves differed significantly from adult males and females in FA and lipid class composition. CPD led to a higher ratio of n-6 to n-3 FA compared with grazing. The ratio n-6/n-3 in the polar lipid (PL) fraction of the animals fed LPD was slightly, but not significantly, higher than that in the grazing reindeer. LPD-fed animals had lower proportions of long-chain polyunsaturated FA (LCPUFA), namely 20:4n-6, 22:5n-3, and 22:6n-3, in the PL fraction compared with the grazing animals due to the content of these FA in the natural feed. The animals seemed unable to elongate dietary FA in significant amounts. We conclude that by adding crushed linseed to the pellets it was possible to keep the favorable FA composition of meat from grazing reindeer with regard to the n-6/n-3 ratio but not in LCPUFA.

Animal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena↗
PubMed1992

Radiocesium in muscle tissue of reindeer and pike from northern Sweden before and after the Chernobyl accident. A retrospective study on tissue samples from the Swedish Environmental Specimen Bank.

After the Chernobyl accident in April 1986, considerable deposition of radionuclides occurred regionally in eastern, central and northwestern Sweden. Locally, the fallout of radiocesium exceeded the remainder from atmospheric nuclear weapons tests by several magnitudes. Since the end of the 1960s samples of organs from various plant and animal species, annually collected at different localities, have been preserved in the Swedish Environmental Specimen Bank (ESB). In this work samples from the ESB have been used for retrospective studies of radioactive pollution. The activities of Cs-134 and Cs-137 in muscle tissues from reindeer, Rangifer tarandus, and pike, Esox lucius, preserved in the ESB, were measured. The samples were collected annually; the reindeer at three localities in northern Sweden and the pike at one of them. In material collected prior to the Chernobyl accident, the levels of Cs-137 were 57-180 Bq/kg in reindeer and 14-24 Bq/kg in pike, fresh weight basis. These levels relate to earlier nuclear bomb tests. A significant decrease was found in pike during the pre-Chernobyl period (1971-86). In post-Chernobyl samples the burden of Cs-137 varied from amounts equal to the former levels in the northernmost locality and up to 80 times higher for the maximum values in the southernmost locality. The highest value recorded was 18,425 Bq/kg in reindeer. The geographic variations in reindeer from Chernobyl fallout were in accordance with the pattern of deposition estimated by aircraft surveys performed in May 1986. The ratio between 'new' and 'old' radiocesium burdens in pike, caught in 1987, approached the corresponding ratio for reindeer grazing in the precipitation area of the lake; 33 and 19, respectively.

Accidents↗
PubMed2005

(90)Sr, (210)Po and (210)Pb in lichen and reindeer in Norway.

Concentrations of (90)Sr, (210)Po and (210)Pb in lichen and reindeer were studied in central (Østre Namdal) and southern Norway (Vågå) during 2000-2003. The study focussed on potential differences in concentrations of these nuclides in reindeer of different ages. Concentrations of (90)Sr in bones of approximately 10 year old adult females were about 40% higher than those in calves' antlers ((90)Sr concentrations in antlers and bones of calves are similar), while the available data from Vågå suggest that (90)Sr concentrations in reindeer calves decreased with an effective ecological half-time of 9.03+/-0.06 years during 1988-2002. Furthermore, (90)Sr concentrations were 50-80% higher in bone of reindeer of a similar age from Vågå compared to those from Østre Namdal. Concentrations of (210)Po and (210)Pb in muscle and liver tissues were comparable to those reported for reindeer in other Nordic areas, with no significant difference in (210)Po and (210)Pb concentrations between adults and calves or between reindeer from the two different study areas.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2006

Population dynamics of nematode parasites of reindeer in the sub-arctic.

Nematode parasite infections of semi-domestic reindeer grazing in their natural habitat in northern Finland were monitored for approximately 2 years. This was achieved by monthly faecal egg counts of male and female calves and adult females from an experimental reindeer herd, in addition to estimating the acquisition of nematode infection from pasture using tracer reindeer calves. The most abundant parasite was Ostertagia gruehneri in the worm counts of tracer animals and in faecal egg counts of adult female reindeer. Capillaria sp. eggs were detected in calves and adults, but Nematodirinae eggs were only recovered from calves. Faecal egg counts showed variations between months for each nematode species, with male and female calves shedding similar numbers of eggs. During each year, calves shed more Capillaria sp. eggs than adult female reindeer, but similar numbers of O. gruehneri eggs. Egg counts of O. gruehneri were more abundant in late summer-autumn (July-September), whereas Capillaria sp. and the Nematodirinae dominated the winter months (November-February). The seasonal trends of adult worm burdens of O. gruehneri in the tracers paralleled the egg count patterns. Capillaria sp. was not detected in tracer worm counts. Tracer worm burdens showed that the proportion of inhibited larvae of O. gruehneri and Nematodirinae steadily increased from spring to early winter, followed by a decline and a commensurate increase in the number of adult parasites in the second summer. This investigation showed that parasite transmission occurs continuously throughout the year for nematode parasites of reindeer in northern Finland.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

The effect of wintertime undernutrition on the fatty acid composition of leg bone marrow fats in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.).

We studied the effects of wintertime undernutrition on the fatty acid composition of bone marrow triacylglycerols (TAGs) of legs in freely-ranging reindeer calves (<1 year) and adult hinds by comparing reindeer in poor condition slaughtered in February with reindeer in good condition slaughtered in October. Significant reductions were found in the proportions of the major monounsaturated fatty acid, or oleic acid, and in linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids in the femur TAGs of the undernourished reindeer as compared with the reindeer in good condition. As a result of these changes, the unsaturation index (UI) of the femur TAGs was reduced by 11% both in the calves and hinds. Similarly, there were also significant reductions in the proportions of oleic and linoleic acid in the metatarsal TAGs in the undernourished hinds, but only in linoleic acid in the calves. The UI of the metatarsal TAGs of the hinds was reduced by 7%, but that of the calves remained unchanged. The results suggest selective mobilization of oleic acid and the principal C18-polyunsaturated fatty acids from bone marrow TAGs in the undernourished reindeer during winter. These changes decrease the unsaturation degree of bone marrow fats, and, if advanced, may impair their fluidity and the functioning of the legs in the cold.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2006

Prolonged persistence of fecally excreted ivermectin from reindeer in a sub-arctic environment.

In December 2001 and 2002, feces from reindeer calves treated with ivermectin were distributed on plots established on two types of forested reindeer pasture in northern Finland. The ungrazed plots were on an enclosure that had been fenced to prevent reindeer access for the last 6 years. The grazed plots were on an area that had been heavily stocked by reindeer during the last 5 years. After enclosures had been established, reindeer and large wildlife were prevented from entering by a fence. Topsoil samples (feces, vegetation, and soil) were collected monthly during the summers of the following 2 years, over a period of from 25 to 95 weeks after deposition. The samples were analyzed for ivermectin using HPLC. Although ivermectin degradation rapidly took place during the first spring, considerable residual ivermectin could be measured throughout the sampling time, showing that ivermectin in feces on pasture may not be photodegraded as rapidly as previously believed. The results support the need for further environmental evaluation studies on the use of ivermectin to control reindeer parasites.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Campylobacter hyointestinalis subsp. hyointestinalis, a common Campylobacter species in reindeer.

AIMS: To study the prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in the faecal material of reindeer, and to identify the isolates by means of a polyphasic approach. In addition, to study the genetic diversity of Camp. hyointestinalis subsp. hyointestinalis reindeer isolates by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). METHODS AND RESULTS: The material, collected during the slaughter period in autumn 1998, comprised 399 faecal contents from the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), a semi-domesticated, meat-producing ruminant of northern Finland. These samples came from 16 herds in the areas of eight reindeer slaughterhouses. Samples were cultured by methods suitable for isolation of fastidious Campylobacter species. Of all samples, 6% (24/399) were Campylobacter-positive. Phenotypic characteristics, SDS-PAGE protein patterns, dot blot DNA-DNA hybridization, 23S rDNA restriction fragment polymorphism analysis and PFGE identified the isolates as Camp. hyointestinalis subsp. hyointestinalis. CONCLUSIONS: Campylobacter hyointestinalis subsp. hyointestinalis was the only Campylobacter species isolated from reindeer in this study. The isolates showed high genomic diversity in PFGE with the restriction enzymes SmaI and KpnI. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: PFGE analysis is a useful subtyping method for epidemiological studies. Contaminated reindeer meat can be a source for human infections.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Radiocesium in Swedish reindeer after the Chernobyl fallout: seasonal variations and long-term decline.

Data about 137Cs activity concentrations in reindeer muscle were collected from different parts of Sweden during 1986-1992. The data were used to evaluate seasonal and geographical variations and long-term decline of 137Cs in reindeer. The seasonal variation is shown in an example from one of the most contaminated areas, the Saami community Vilhelmina Norra, where 137Cs activity concentrations in reindeer during winter exceed those found during summer by about 20 times. Activity concentrations of 137Cs in reindeer were fairly well correlated to ground deposition. The ratio between 137Cs in reindeer (kBq kg-1 wet weight) and ground deposition (kBq m-2) was calculated to be 0.76 m2 kg-1 for the winter period, January-April, in 1987. Activity concentrations of 137Cs in reindeer decreased significantly during the years 1986-1992. The decline was generally more rapid during September, November, and December [corresponding to an effective ecological half-life (TEff) of 3.2 y] than during January-April when TEff was calculated to 4.2 y. There was a general trend toward a slower decrease during the last of the observed years.

Accidents↗
PubMed1979

The Spitzbergen reindeer--a winter-dormant ungulate?

Seasonal changes in serum levels of growth hormone, cortisol and thyroxine in calves and adult Spitzbergen reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrynchus) were measured and compared to those previously found in Norwegian reindeer (R.t. tarandus). Cortisol did not differ significantly between summer and winter, or between the subspecies. Growth hormone and thyroxine exhibited highly significant seasonal changes and subspecific differences: winter levels of growth hormone were much higher than summer levels in the Spitzbergen reindeer, while Norwegian reindeer differed very little from season to season. Both Spitzbergen and Norwegian reindeer had markedly reduced thyroxine levels during winter, but the values from the former were much lower than those from the latter. In summer, however, the levels were equal. The high levels of growth hormone and low levels of thyroxine in the Spitzbergen reindeer during winter are indicative of high lipolytic activity and a reduced metabolic rate, respectively.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Water intake and its thermal energy cost in reindeer fed lichen or various protein rations during winter.

Captive reindeer were fed four different rations which supplied equal energy but varying amount of crude protein: lichens (3%), mixed hay plus lichens (10%) and two feed concentrates with medium (12%) or high (18%) protein content. Kinetics of total body water were measured with tritiated water from February to March 1985, and thermal energy cost of daily water intake was estimated. Biological half-time of water was shorter, and daily water intake significantly higher on the hay plus lichens diet and on the medium- or high-protein concentrates diet than on the lichens diet during March 1985. Similar differences were found between reindeer on medium-protein concentrate and on lichens at the end of the corresponding feeding period during April 1986. Daily water inflow was positively correlated with a dietary supply of digestible crude protein (r = 0.916). Thermal energy costs of daily water intake were highest 1.9 MJ (3.7 l-1) in reindeer on high-protein concentrate during March 1985, and 2.0 MJ (3.9 l-1) in reindeer on medium-protein concentrate during April 1986. The reindeer fed on lichens had minimal and nearly twice as small thermal energy cost of daily water intake (mean 1.1 MJ 2.1 l-1) as on either of the concentrates. Our results show that even a moderate feed protein ration can significantly increase free water intake and its thermal energy cost in reindeer as compared to dominant natural feed (lichens) during winter. Careful protein supplementation is recommended to support body condition with a concomitant addition of easily soluble carbohydrates to compensate for increased thermal costs of water intake.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed2003

Conflict resolution by participatory management: remote sensing and GIS as tools for communicating land-use needs for reindeer herding in northern Sweden.

When seeking to resolve complex land-management issues, geographical assessment of resources that are in short supply or in dispute can aid the communication of knowledge and the understanding among and between different stakeholders. In this paper, we illustrate how remote sensing and GIS can be used to gather and compile information regarding land-use activities and patterns among reindeer herders and other land users (forestry, mining, tourism, etc) in northern Sweden. The project represents a novel user-oriented effort largely based on the work carried out by the principal end user, i.e. the reindeer herders themselves. The basis for development of land-use plans for reindeer husbandry, was the following: to collect and digitally systemize traditional ecological and landscape knowledge of reindeer habitat use; to integrate this information with results from field inventories and satellite-based vegetation classifications; to map activities of other land users. The resulting land-use plans provide information that can facilitate consultation between the reindeer herders and other stakeholders and can facilitate operational work in reindeer management. This project can serve as a model for participatory involvement and planning, bringing indigenous knowledge and advanced remote-sensing techniques together in an interactive process.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2006

Steroid hormone secretion during the ovulatory cycle and pregnancy in farmed Alaskan reindeer.

Seasonal endocrine changes in 5 non-bred and 10 pregnant Alaskan reindeer have been documented. Blood samples were collected from early September until early May, spanning the breeding season, gestation, or the anovulatory period. Plasma was analyzed by RIA for progesterone (P4), estradiol-17beta, estrone, and estrone sulfate. Elevated P4 in 80% of the reindeer at the onset of the study indicated that ovarian activity had been initiated. The median date for the onset of the first recorded full-length ovulatory cycle was September 23. In nonbred reindeer, the mean ovulatory cycle length from September to May was 24 +/- 1 d (range 18 to 29 d). Nonbred females continued to cycle throughout the winter, displaying 6 to 8 ovulatory cycles after the beginning of blood sampling. Cycle length (mean 22 to 24 d) did not vary between individuals (P = 0.170) or over the course of the winter (P = 0.244). In early April, ovulatory cycles ceased with normal demise of the corpus luteum in 2 females, whereas the remaining 3 females formed apparently persistent corpora lutea. Natural service breeding occurred between September 10 and October 2, and P4 profiles indicated that all breeding females conceived to the first mating. Concentrations of P4 rose steadily after conception and remained elevated throughout gestation, with mean concentrations not varying significantly (P = 0.104) from 4 to 28 wk of gestation. Estrogens all followed patterns similar to each other, remaining at baseline concentrations until approximately 24 wk of gestation and rising coincidently as P4 declined just before parturition. There was a continual overlap throughout the winter in peak P4 concentrations observed in cycling and pregnant reindeer. Calving occurred between April 8 and May 2, resulting in a mean gestation length of 211 +/- 2.2 d (range 198 to 221 d). Information from this study can be used by Alaskan reindeer producers to improve management and profitability of reindeer production.

Agriculture↗