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PubMedDate not supplied

Acoustic echoplanar scanner noise and pure tone hearing thresholds: the effects of sequence repetition times and acoustic noise rates.

PURPOSE: Our goal was to determine the effects of acoustic echoplanar scanner noise on pure tone hearing thresholds in normal volunteers and to determine the influence of echoplanar sequence repetition time on threshold effects. METHOD: With use of a calibrated audiometer, pure tones ranging from 125 to 8,000 Hz were delivered monaurally to 10 normal-hearing volunteers in a quiet MR scanner suite and in the presence of acoustic scanner noise produced by three separate single shot blipped echoplanar pulse sequences varying only in repetition time (TR = 1,000, 2,000, or 3,000 ms), with all other parameters including the number of slices held constant. The magnitude of noise-induced threshold changes and the slopes of the threshold curves produced by each of the three echoplanar pulse sequences were then analyzed using multiple comparisons and a least significant difference method. The shapes of the threshold curves produced in each background state were best fit using a quadratic effect for frequency in a mixed effects linear model and compared using F test statistics. RESULTS: All of the volunteers demonstrated entirely normal hearing thresholds throughout the full range of tonal frequencies tested (< 25 dB) when no acoustic scanner noise was present in the scanner suite. Pure tone hearing thresholds significantly increased (p < 0.01) in the presence of acoustic scanner noise, with the magnitude of change inversely proportional to the repetition time and therefore the rate of periodic noise production by the echoplanar sequence used. The shape of the threshold curve in the presence of noise produced by the 1,000 ms TR sequence was not equivalent across the frequency spectrum tested but had a quadratic distribution with peak effects at 750-2,000 Hz. As the repetition time was increased and the periodic noise rate decreased, the magnitude of the noise-induced threshold changes significantly lessened (p < 0.01) and the quadratic distributions of the threshold curves changed significantly (p < 0.01), tending toward a more planar configuration. CONCLUSION: Background acoustic echoplanar scanner noise can significantly increase pure tone thresholds in the optimal frequency hearing range (125-8,000 Hz). However, the threshold effects are not equivalent across the frequency spectrum, and the magnitude of threshold changes is dependent on the rate at which periodic acoustic scanner noises are produced for a given sequence repetition time.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed1995

Comparison of auditory filter shapes obtained with notched-noise and noise-tone maskers.

The notched-noise method has been widely used to estimate the shape of the auditory filter. Results obtained using this method may be influenced by combination bands produced by the interaction of components within the upper band of noise in the notched-noise masker. To assess the possible effect of such combination bands, results were compared for two types of masker: A notched noise, as used in previous experiments; and a masker in which the upper band of noise was replaced by a sinusoid with a frequency corresponding to the lower edge frequency of that band. This is referred to as the noise-tone masker. The signal frequency was 2 kHz, and measurements were obtained for two different spectrum levels of the noise masker, 30 and 45 dB. Auditory filter shapes derived using the two maskers were similar on their low-frequency sides, as expected. The low-frequency sides were less steep at the higher masker level. The high-frequency sides of the auditory filters derived using the noise-tone masker were sometimes slightly steeper than those obtained using the notched-noise masker, but the effect was generally small. Changes with level on the high-frequency sides were not consistent across subjects. An analysis of the notched-noise data taking into account the effects of the combination bands suggests that the maximal spectrum level of the combination bands, in the region just below the lower spectral edge of the primary noise band, is about 20 to 30 dB below the spectrum level of the primary band.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Auditory Perception↗
PubMed1998

An adaptive noise reduction stethoscope for auscultation in high noise environments.

Auscultation of lung sounds in patient transport vehicles such as an ambulance or aircraft is unachievable because of high ambient noise levels. Aircraft noise levels of 90-100 dB SPL are common, while lung sounds have been measured in the 22-30 dB SPL range in free space and 65-70 dB SPL within a stethoscope coupler. Also, the bandwidth of lung sounds and vehicle noise typically has significant overlap, limiting the utility of traditional band-pass filtering. In this study, a passively shielded stethoscope coupler that contains one microphone to measure the (noise-corrupted) lung sound and another to measure the ambient noise was constructed. Lung sound measurements were made on a healthy subject in a simulated USAF C-130 aircraft environment within an acoustic chamber at noise levels ranging from 80 to 100 dB SPL. Adaptive filtering schemes using a least-mean-squares (LMS) and a normalized least-mean-squares (NLMS) approach were employed to extract the lung sounds from the noise-corrupted signal. Approximately 15 dB of noise reduction over the 100-600 Hz frequency range was achieved with the LMS algorithm, with the more complex NLMS algorithm providing faster convergence and up to 5 dB of additional noise reduction. These findings indicate that a combination of active and passive noise reduction can be used to measure lung sounds in high noise environments.

Auscultation↗
PubMed2006

Noise in the animal shelter environment: building design and the effects of daily noise exposure.

Sound levels in animal shelters regularly exceed 100 dB. Noise is a physical stressor on animals that can lead to behavioral, physiological, and anatomical responses. There are currently no policies regulating noise levels in dog kennels. The objective of this study was to evaluate the noise levels dogs are exposed to in an animal shelter on a continuous basis and to determine the need, if any, for noise regulations. Noise levels at a newly constructed animal shelter were measured using a noise dosimeter in all indoor dog-holding areas. These holding areas included large dog adoptable, large dog stray, small dog adoptable, small dog stray, and front intake. The noise level was highest in the large adoptable area. Sound from the large adoptable area affected some of the noise measurements for the other rooms. Peak noise levels regularly exceeded the measuring capability of the dosimeter (118.9 dBA). Often, in new facility design, there is little attention paid to noise abatement, despite the evidence that noise causes physical and psychological stress on dogs. To meet their behavioral and physical needs, kennel design should also address optimal sound range.

Acoustics↗
PubMed1989

Continuous noise, intermittent noise, and annoyance.

In a within-subjects design, 18 subjects listened to white noise, the intensity of which was controlled by themselves. They were instructed to choose the intensity they experienced as "clearly annoying." Three kinds of white noise were used: continuous, intermittent regular, and intermittent irregular. In the two intermittent conditions, the proportion of time with the noise on was 50%. The duration of on- and off-periods in the regular condition was 1.15 sec.; in the irregular condition, it varied between 0.25 and 1.65 sec. The subjects chose their "clearly annoying" level three times for each noise type. The results showed that the mean level chosen was 83.9 dB for continuous, 90 dB for intermittent regular, and 89.6 dB for intermittent irregular noise. Pairwise comparisons indicated a significant difference between continuous noise and each of the two intermittent noises while there was no difference between the two intermittent noises. The results are interpreted as indicating that noise-induced annoyance may be a function of the over-all amount of noise rather than the mere presence or absence of intermittency, at least when no concurrent demanding task is performed and when the required annoyance level is set by the subjects themselves. The results further showed that the intensity chosen by the subjects correlated negatively with scores from Weinstein's Noise Sensitivity Scale while the intensity chosen was unrelated to extraversion or neuroticism scores as measured by Eysenck Personality Inventory.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

Early/middle evoked potentials to tone bursts in quiet, white noise and notched noise.

Early/middle auditory-evoked potentials were recorded on 10 normal-hearing adults using 500-, 1 000, and 2 000-Hz tone bursts having 4-ms rise-fall and 1-ms plateau times. The stimuli were presented in quiet, white noise and notched noise at 50, 40, 30, 20 and 10 dB nHL. The noises were selected to improve frequency specificity by masking those regions of the cochlea that do not correspond to the test stimulus. The recording-amplifier system had a bandpass of 55-1 500 Hz; electric activity was measured during the 25-ms post-stimulus interval. The three waves observed during this time interval (P10, N15, and P20) were labeled to reflect polarity and latency. The results revealed no differences among stimulus conditions (quiet, white noise, notched noise) in the number of identifiable responses for any wave at any intensity. Moreover, no P10, N15 or P20 latency differences were observed among conditions at 40 dB nHL and below. When 500-Hz tone bursts were presented at 50 dB nHL, however, significantly shorter response latencies were observed in quiet than when the tone bursts were mixed with white noise or notched noise. It was concluded that frequency specificity can be improved when tone bursts are mixed with notched noise or white noise. White noise is preferred, however, because it can be implemented with less complex instrumentation and calibration than notched noise.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Ambient noise strategy: a solution for noise control?

The British Government earlier this year undertook a consultation on its proposal, announced in the Rural White Paper, to develop an Ambient Noise Strategy in England. The proposals envisage a three phase approach: In phase 1 we would aim to establish three key sets of information: information on the ambient noise climate in the country--i.e. the number of people affected by different levels of noise, the source of that noise (road, rail, airports and industry) and the location of the people affected, by producing noise maps of the main sources of noise; methods which the Government might use to assess the effects of noise--particularly regarding people's quality of life and tranquility; the techniques available to take action to improve the situation where bad or preserve it where good. In phase 2 we would aim to evaluate and identify options for prioritising the various alternatives from phase 1 in terms not only of costs and benefits but also time-scales and synergies and conflicts with other Government priorities including economic and social issues. An optimal policy reduces noise at lowest net cost, whilst capturing as many synergistic benefits, and minimising any potentially adverse impacts. Decision makers need to ensure that the impacts of the noise policies do not cost society more than the benefits expected. A recent study undertaken by the Government, looked at how a cost-benefit type framework could be used, with noise maps, to help inform such decisions. Finally, in phase 3, the Government would need to agree on the necessary policies to move towards the desired outcome--i.e. the National Ambient Noise Strategy itself. The results of the consultation are expected to be published later this year.

Databases, Factual↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Noise and mental performance: personality attributes and noise sensitivity.

The contradictory and confusing results in noise research on humans may partly be due to individual differences between the subjects participating in different studies. This review is based on a twelve year research on the role of neuroticism, extroversion and subjective noise sensitivity during mental work in noisy environment. Neurotic persons might show enhanced "arousability" i.e. their arousal level increases more in stress. Additional unfavorable factors for neurotics are worrying and anxiety, which might prevent them coping successfully with noise, or some other stressors during mental performance. In numerous experiments introverts have showed higher sensitivity to noise during mental performance compared to extroverts, while extroverts often cope with a boring task even by requesting short periods of noise during performance. Correlation analyses have regularly revealed a highly significant negative relation between extroversion and noise annoyance during mental processing. Numerous studies have shown that people with high noise sensitivity may be prevented from achieving the same work results as other people in noisy environment, thus leading to psychosomatic, neurotic or other difficulties. Positive relation between noise annoyance and subjective noise sensitivity might be very strong. Our results have shown, after matching with the results of other relevant studies, that more stable personality, with extroversive tendencies and with a relatively lower subjective noise sensitivity measured with standard questionnaires, may be expected to better adapt to noise during mental performance, compared to people with opposite personality traits.

Attention↗
PubMed1995

Noise in a neonatal unit: guidelines for the reduction or prevention of noise.

Advances in medical technology have led to major technological developments in the field of neonatal care. Over the past three decades there has been increasing concern about noise levels in neonatal intensive care units. The experience of working in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) and exposure to high noise levels of such a unit prompted the researcher to investigate the sources of noise further and to explore ways of reducing or preventing the occurrence of such noise. The environment of one NICU consisting of a critical care area and a "grower type" nursery was surveyed with the aim of establishing noise levels in such a unit. A GR (General Radio) 1565-B sound level meter was used to measure the noise levels in the NICU and recordings of noise levels were made. Data were entered into the checklist each time a sound level was recorded and later analysed. In the critical care area sound levels ranged from 64-66 dB (A) (A weighted decibel scale) and in the grower nursery from 50-60 dB (A). Recent British and American Standards require that the mean noise levels inside the incubator should not exceed 60 dB (A) which is safe for the adult human ear (Wolke 1987). When compared with the in utero environment the noise levels of the neonatal unit are high and potentially hazardous because of the large numbers of staff and the amount of equipment present. The main findings of the study were that: There is a considerable level of noise in the NICU and this noise persists throughout day and night.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Health Facility Environment↗
PubMed1984

Effects of impulse noise and continuous steady state noise on hearing.

In this study the effects on hearing induced by occupational exposure to impulse noise were compared with those induced by exposure to continuous steady state noise. Three groups exposed to impulse noise, one group exposed to continuous steady state noise, and an unexposed control group were studied. The hearing thresholds of the groups were measured by a puretone audiometer three times in two workdays. None of the groups showed significant differences between the hearing thresholds measured in the morning, at midday, and in the afternoon. Group 1 with the shortest duration of exposure and group 2 with the intermediate duration of exposure to impulse noise had the highest thresholds at 6000 Hz in both ears. Group 3 with the longest duration of exposure to impulse noise had the highest thresholds asymmetrically, at 4000 Hz in the left ear and at 6000 Hz in the right ear. The group exposed to continuous steady state noise also had the highest thresholds asymmetrically, in the left ear at 6000 Hz. It was concluded that the longer the duration of exposure to impulse noise the wider the region of the frequencies that showed raised threshold shifts in both ears. Impulse noise seemed to produce permanent threshold shifts at 4000 and 6000 Hz after a shorter duration of exposure than continuous steady state noise.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Noise, impulse noise, and other physical factors: combined effects on hearing.

In most of the epidemiologic studies conducted during the last 20 years, impulse noise caused increased risk of hearing loss in comparison to continuous noise with the same acoustical energy. The interaction between noise exposure (broadband at 100 dB(A)) and hand-arm vibration (125 Hz at 2 ms-2 acceleration level) has been proven for people having vibration-induced white finger symptoms. This interaction is evidenced as a permanent hearing loss. However, why the interaction is seen only in people with VWF is not known. The mechanisms may be related to individual susceptibility, and hypotheses are given on the role of the autonomous nervous system regulating the peripheral vascular reaction. Whole-body vibration (2-10 Hz, at 10 ms-2 level) seems to increase the TTS when noise (broadband at 90 dB(A)) is present. This effect is more pronounced at higher temperatures. The hypothermia protects hearing against the effects of noise in animal studies. The interaction between noise and temperature decrease seems obvious in animal studies. Exercise has both increased and decreased the TTS during noise exposure. The effects have been successfully explained as the depression of the stapedius reflex. Thus, less protection against noise is provided for the inner ear in exercise conditions. The increase of the blood temperature also has been suggested to increase noise-induced TTS during exercise. Electromagnetic fields have been found to cause acoustical interactions in the inner ear. Animal studies and human studies have given contradictory results on the effects of magnetic coil devices on hearing. The MR imaging devices produce noise levels of 82-93 dB, which is not sufficient to produce the risk of permanent hearing loss when short exposure durations are taken into consideration. More systematic research is needed with accurately defined electromagnetic characteristics to reveal the potential interactions. The interactions seem to exist, but relatively high levels and durations of exposure are needed to produce an observable effect on hearing. More investigations are still needed on the permanent hearing loss in humans caused by simultaneous long-term exposures to interacting environmental factors.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

A Digital Filter for the State Estimation of Impulsive Noise Under the Existence of a Background Noise and its Experiment in the Work Environment.

In the actual work environment, a specific objective noise, like machine and industrial noises, shows impulsive fluctuation form. Furthermore, it often occurs that a specific noise is partially or completely contaminated by background noise. In that case, the fluctuation wave form of the specific noise has to be estimated moment by moment in order to evaluate and/or improve the work environment. In this study, a digital filter for estimating an impulsively fluctuating specific noise is proposed. More specifically, after introducing a generalized time series regressive model of the specific noise, a method for estimating the impulsive noise based on an observation contaminated by the background noise is theoretically derived. Furthermore, the proposed method is applied to the actual task of estimating an industrial impact noise.

background noise↗
PubMed1984

The effect of numbers of noise events on people's reactions to noise: an analysis of existing survey data.

The effect of the number of noise events on noise annoyance has been examined in an analysis of data from large-scale social surveys. The relative impact of noise level and number on human reactions is measured by the decibel equivalent number effect (k) expressed as the number of decibels which have an effect equivalent to that of a tenfold increase in number of events. Values of k differ between surveys but none is significantly greater (p greater than 0.05) than the value of k = 10 which is implicit in Leq or Ldn. The mean of the existing data provide a best estimate of k = 5. Although there are some surveys in which annoyance decreases as numbers of events increase above about 150 a day, the available evidence is not strong enough to reject the conventional assumption that reactions are related to the logarithm of the number of events. The conventional assumption that the effects of number and peak noise level are additive cannot be rejected with these data. Differences between the surveys' estimates of the effect of number of events remained large even when equivalent questionnaire items and definitions of noise events could be used. The most likely explanations for inconsistent estimates are (1) errors in specifying the values of noise parameters, (2) the effects of unmeasured acoustical and area characteristics which are correlated with noise level or number, and (3) large sampling errors which are due to community differences in response to noise. Multipoint annoyance scales give more reliable estimates than do dichotomous "very annoyed" measures. It is concluded that significant improvements in the knowledge about the effects of numbers of noise events will only occur if surveys include large numbers of study areas, a requirement which can only be met if economical noise measurement techniques are developed which have known levels of precision.

Aircraft↗
PubMed2006

Effect of additional auditory and visual stimuli on continuous performance test (noise-generated CPT) in AD/HD children -- usefulness of noise-generated CPT.

The continuous performance test (CPT) is designed to measure sustained attention quantitatively. Several CPTs are used clinically. We have made changes to the conventional type of visual CPT, by displaying auditory and visual noise along with target or non-target stimuli. By influencing the recognition of the subjects in this way, the changes were intended to increase the sensitivity of detection of inattention and impulsiveness, to make CPT more useful for diagnosis, and to examine the effect of noise on AD/HD children during CPT performance. Its usefulness for AD/HD diagnosis and the reaction of AD/HD children to noise were examined using newly developed computer software. Using this CPT analysis, a significant difference was observed in all measurements, except mean reaction time, between the control and AD/HD groups, showing that it was useful as a supplementary diagnostic method for AD/HD, and was more useful in the younger age group than in the older age group, as the same for conventional CPTs. As compared to no-noise sessions, commission and omission errors both increased significantly in auditory and visual noise sessions. Thus, analyzing the changes in measurements during noise sessions will improve the diagnosis of inattention and combined AD/HD subtypes. Furthermore, it was suggested that analysis of the effects of noise on AD/HD children will benefit their handling in an educational environment. Since omission errors were decreased in AD/HD children by noise during the CPT performance as compared to the control group, noise may induce attention in AD/HD children. The present study presents new findings on the responses to noise of AD/HD children during the CPT.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed1993

Teratogenic effects of noise and cadmium in mice: does noise have teratogenic potential?

The teratogenicity of combined exposure to noise and cadmium was studied in mice. ICR mice were exposed to a wide octave-band of noise at 100 dB(C) for 6 h on d 7 of pregnancy in one of two ways: continuous exposure or intermittent (15 min on/15 min off). Cadmium sulfate at 1 or 2 mg/kg was intraperitoneally injected on d 7 of pregnancy. Four groups were exposed to both cadmium and noise. On d 18 of pregnancy, fetuses were examined for external and skeletal malformations. Another experiment was performed with two other patterns of noise exposure: continuous exposure for 3 h, and intermittent exposure (5 min on/5 min off) for 6 h on d 7 of pregnancy. In the groups exposed to continuous noise for 6 h, total percentages of malformed fetuses were significantly higher than that in the control group, but there were no significant increases of total percentages of fetal malformations in the combined treatment groups in comparison with the groups given the same dose of cadmium alone. The percentages of skeletally malformed fetuses in groups exposed to 6 h of continuous noise were significantly higher than in groups that received saline or the same dose of cadmium. There were no significant differences in the total percentages of malformed fetuses between the control group and the groups exposed to a total of 3 h of noise, whether continuously or intermittently. Although combined treatment with cadmium and noise resulted in an increase of total percentages of malformed fetuses compared to the same dose of cadmium alone, the interactions between cadmium and noise showed no synergistic effect on teratogenicity. The magnitude of teratogenicity due to noise is much weaker than that of cadmium, and is therefore easily masked by that of cadmium in statistical tests of the significance of differences.

Abnormalities, Drug-Induced↗
PubMed1980

Noise as a contributory factor in the development of elevated arterial pressure. A study of the mechanisms by which noise may raise blood pressure in man.

Arterial pressure and other hemodynamic variables (stroke volume (SV), cardiac output and total peripheral resistance) were studied in 18 healthy males before and during exposure to recorded industrial noise. All measurements took place under strictly standardized conditions in a noise laboratory. the frequency distribution and level of noise used for stimulation were continuously monitored and kept constant within close limits throughout the experiments. SV was measured with impedance cardiography. Indirect blood pressure (BP) in the brachial artery was measured with an automatic device and the derived parameters, cardiac output and total peripheral resistance, were calculated from these measurements. Compared with resting conditions at 40 dBA, stimulation with industrial noise at 95 dBA caused significant increases in diastolic BP, mean arterial pressure and total peripheral resistance. Minor but statistically significant reductions of SV and cardiac output were seen. Heart rate and systolic BP did not change. These alterations of the hemodynamic variables persisted throughout 20 min of noise stimulation and were maintained for 5 min following cessation of noise stimulation. All variables had returned to their initial levels 10 min after discontinuation of noise stimulation. This study suggests that exposure to industrial noise at levels prevailing during several industrial processes may cause acute elevations of arterial BP and peripheral vascular resistance. In animal studies, repeated elevations of BP due to exposure to noise have been shown to cause a permanent elevation of BP. Therefore, we suggest that noise may be one of several external stimuli contributing to the development of arterial hypertension in man.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Asymmetry of masking between noise and iterated rippled noise: evidence for time-interval processing in the auditory system.

This study describes the masking asymmetry between noise and iterated rippled noise (IRN) as a function of spectral region and the IRN delay. Masking asymmetry refers to the fact that noise masks IRN much more effectively than IRN masks noise, even when the stimuli occupy the same spectral region. Detection thresholds for IRN masked by noise and for noise masked by IRN were measured with an adaptive two-alternative, forced choice (2AFC) procedure with signal level as the adaptive parameter. Masker level was randomly varied within a 10-dB range in order to reduce the salience of loudness as a cue for detection. The stimuli were filtered into frequency bands, 2.2-kHz wide, with lower cutoff frequencies ranging from 0.8 to 6.4 kHz. IRN was generated with 16 iterations and with varying delays. The reciprocal of the delay was 16, 32, 64, or 128 Hz. When the reciprocal of the IRN delay was within the pitch range, i.e., above 30 Hz, there was a substantial masking asymmetry between IRN and noise for all filter cutoff frequencies; threshold for IRN masked by noise was about 10 dB larger than threshold for noise masked by IRN. For the 16-Hz IRN, the masking asymmetry decreased progressively with increasing filter cutoff frequency, from about 9 dB for the lowest cutoff frequency to less than 1 dB for the highest cutoff frequency. This suggests that masking asymmetry may be determined by different cues for delays within and below the pitch range. The fact that masking asymmetry exists for conditions that combine very long IRN delays with very high filter cutoff frequencies means that it is unlikely that models based on the excitation patterns of the stimuli would be successful in explaining the threshold data. A range of time-domain models of auditory processing that focus on the time intervals in phase-locked neural activity patterns is reviewed. Most of these models were successful in accounting for the basic masking asymmetry between IRN and noise for conditions within the pitch range, and one of the models produced an exceptionally good fit to the data.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Hypertension and Exposure to Noise near Airports (HYENA): study design and noise exposure assessment.

An increasing number of people live near airports with considerable noise and air pollution. The Hypertension and Exposure to Noise near Airports (HYENA) project aims to assess the impact of airport-related noise exposure on blood pressure (BP) and cardiovascular disease using a cross-sectional study design. We selected 6,000 persons (45-70 years of age) who had lived at least 5 years near one of six major European airports. We used modeled aircraft noise contours, aiming to maximize exposure contrast. Automated BP instruments are used to reduce observer error. We designed a standardized questionnaire to collect data on annoyance, noise disturbance, and major confounders. Cortisol in saliva was collected in a subsample of the study population (n = 500) stratified by noise exposure level. To investigate short-term noise effects on BP and possible effects on nighttime BP dipping, we measured 24-hr BP and assessed continuous night noise in another subsample (n = 200). To ensure comparability between countries, we used common noise models to assess individual noise exposure, with a resolution of 1 dB(A). Modifiers of individual exposure, such as the orientation of living and bedroom toward roads, window-opening habits, and sound insulation, were assessed by the questionnaire. For four airports, we estimated exposure to air pollution to explore modifying effects of air pollution on cardiovascular disease. The project assesses exposure to traffic-related air pollutants, primarily using data from another project funded by the European Union (APMoSPHERE, Air Pollution Modelling for Support to Policy on Health and Environmental Risks in Europe).

Aged↗