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PubMed2003

Causes of low vision and blindness in rural Indonesia.

AIM: To determine the prevalence rates and major contributing causes of low vision and blindness in adults in a rural setting in Indonesia METHODS: A population based prevalence survey of adults 21 years or older (n=989) was conducted in five rural villages and one provincial town in Sumatra, Indonesia. One stage household cluster sampling procedure was employed where 100 households were randomly selected from each village or town. Bilateral low vision was defined as habitual VA (measured using tumbling "E" logMAR charts) in the better eye worse than 6/18 and 3/60 or better, based on the WHO criteria. Bilateral blindness was defined as habitual VA worse than 3/60 in the better eye. The anterior segment and lens of subjects with low vision or blindness (both unilateral and bilateral) (n=66) were examined using a portable slit lamp and fundus examination was performed using indirect ophthalmoscopy. RESULTS: The overall age adjusted (adjusted to the 1990 Indonesia census population) prevalence rate of bilateral low vision was 5.8% (95% confidence interval (CI) 4.2 to 7.4) and bilateral blindness was 2.2% (95% CI 1.1 to 3.2). The rates of low vision and blindness increased with age. The major contributing causes for bilateral low vision were cataract (61.3%), uncorrected refractive error (12.9%), and amblyopia (12.9%), and the major cause of bilateral blindness was cataract (62.5%). The major causes of unilateral low vision were cataract (48.0%) and uncorrected refractive error (12.0%), and major causes of unilateral blindness were amblyopia (50.0%) and trauma (50.0%). CONCLUSIONS: The rates of habitual low vision and blindness in provincial Sumatra, Indonesia, are similar to other developing rural countries in Asia. Blindness is largely preventable, as the major contributing causes (cataract and uncorrected refractive error) are amenable to treatment.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Human T lymphotropic virus I in Indonesia. Very low seroprevalence in the Jakarta area: antibodies in healthy blood donors and in various nonhematological diseases.

Human T lymphotropic virus I (HTLV-I) is a retrovirus associated with adult T cell leukemia/lymphoma, tropical spastic paraparesis and possibly with other diseases. The actual incidence of HTLV-I carriers in Asia and Africa is difficult to assess and values of 0-37% have been reported. A study in Papua New Guinea by Yamaguchi et al. [6]found 1.8% positive for antibody to HTLV-I and this area is geographically close to the eastern part of Indonesia. A collaborative study was carried out to establish the seroprevalence of HTLV-I in Indonesia using the same method as that used standardly by Yamaguchi et al. in Japan. In a first step we measured antibody to HTLV-I in 657 subjects including 127 healthy persons around Jakarta, 451 patients with various nonhematological diseases and 79 blood donors. The majority of these healthy persons and patients came from various tribes of west Indonesia. All samples were initially screened for HTLV-I by the aggutination test. Serum that caused agglutination of the final dilution of 1:16 or more and/or showed positivity on ELISA was subjected to immunofluorescence testing using HTLV-I-producing MT-2 cells and Western blot analysis. Of the 657 samples, only 1 sample (0.15%) was found to be positive by the agglutination test, but this sample was negative when subjected to WB. From these result we concluded that there was very low seroprevalence of HTLV-I in the Jakarta area, which was also reflected in the western part of Indonesia. Routine examination of blood donors for HTLV-I in this area may not be necessary.

Adult↗
PubMed2025

Characterizing the genetic diversity and population structure of Plasmodium knowlesi in Aceh Province, Indonesia.

As in other parts of Southeast Asia, efforts to achieve or sustain malaria elimination in Indonesia have been threatened by the emergence of human infection with the primate species P. knowlesi. To understand the transmission dynamics of this species, investigation of P. knowlesi genetic diversity and population structure is needed. A molecular surveillance study was conducted in two phases between June 2014 and September 2018 at five primary health facilities in Aceh Province, Indonesia, an area nearing malaria elimination. Dried blood spot samples were collected from patients presenting with suspected malaria and testing positive for malaria by microscopy. PCR was performed for molecular confirmation and species identification. Forty-six samples were confirmed to be P. knowlesi, of which 41 were amplified with genotyping targeting ten known P. knowlesi microsatellite markers. For samples within a site, nearly all (9 of 10 loci) or all loci were polymorphic. Across sites, multiple identical haplotypes were observed, though linkage distribution in the population was low (index of association (IAS) = 0.008). The parasite population was indicative of low diversity (expected heterozygosity [HE] =  0.63) and low complexity demonstrated by 92.7% monoclonal infections, a mean multiplicity of infection of 1.06, and a mean within-host infection fixation index (FST) of 0.05. Principal coordinate and neighbour-joining tree analyses indicated that P. knowlesi strains from Aceh were distinct from those reported in Malaysia. In a near-elimination setting in Indonesia, we demonstrate the first evidence that P. knowlesi strains were minimally diverse and were genetically distinct from Malaysian strains, suggesting highly localized transmission and limited connectivity to Malaysia. Ongoing genetic surveillance of P. knowlesi in Indonesia can inform tracking and planning of malaria control and elimination efforts.

Plasmodium knowlesi↗
PubMed2006

Assessment of health-related needs after tsunami and earthquake--three districts, Aceh Province, Indonesia, July-August 2005.

On December 26, 2004, an earthquake measuring 9.2 on the Richter scale off the northwest coast of the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, produced a tsunami that caused the deaths of an estimated 230,000 persons in India, Indonesia, the Maldives, Somalia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. The majority of casualties were in Aceh Province (population 4.5 million) in northern Sumatra, Indonesia, where an estimated 130,000 persons died. In addition, 500,000 persons were displaced from their homes, and 37,000 remain unaccounted for in the province. In the Aceh Province districts of Banda Aceh and Aceh Besar, an estimated 90,000 persons died; approximately 75% of health workers in Banda Aceh either died or were displaced from their homes. On March 28, 2005, a second major earthquake, measuring 8.7 on the Richter scale, caused large-scale damage to the islands of Simeulue and Nias off the western Sumatra coast; approximately 300 persons died, and thousands were displaced. The international community responded to these events with the largest relief measures ever undertaken for a natural disaster. To determine the health and nutrition status of the affected populations and to evaluate the effectiveness of relief interventions 7 months after the tsunami and 3 months after the second earthquake, Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere, Inc. (CARE) International Indonesia and CDC conducted surveys in three districts of Aceh Province (Aceh Besar, Banda Aceh, and Simeulue). This report summarizes the results of those surveys, which identified routine vaccinations and provision of toilets or latrines as particular areas for improvement and revealed no significant difference in health indicators between internally displaced persons (IDPs) and nondisplaced populations. The relief response in Aceh Province should target areas needing improvement with programs that serve both IDPs and nondisplaced persons, as measures are implemented to rebuild the public health infrastructure.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Husband's approval of contraceptive use in metropolitan Indonesia: program implications.

Husband's approval of contraceptive use plays a decisive role in Indonesia. Despite this, no previous study of contraceptive use in Indonesia has evaluated the importance of husband's approval. Such evaluation is especially important in metropolitan areas where family planning programs have encountered more difficulty than those elsewhere in recruiting contraceptive users. Using data from the first Indonesia Contraceptive Prevalence Survey for metropolitan cities, husband's approval and other determinants of contraceptive use among fecund women were evaluated. The levels of contraceptive use varied among cities, ranging from 34.2 percent in Ujung Pandang to 56.5 percent in Semarang. For all cities, however, husband's approval was the most important determinant, followed by number of living children and wife's education. Among women who desire to have no more children, 17.4 percent and 27.8 percent of contraceptive nonuse in Medan and Jakarta, respectively, was attributable to husband's disapproval. Because most of the family planning programs in Indonesia are designed to serve primarily women, the finding of husband's approval as the most important determinant has important program implications.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1981

Chloroquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum infection from Lampung and South Sumatra, Indonesia.

A report was made of 4 cases of chloroquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum infections. The infections, detected in Jakarta, were imported from Kotabumi, Tanjung Karang, the Island of Pidada in the Lampung Province and from Pangkalpinang on the Island Bangka in the Province of South Sumatra. Treatment with courses of 1500 mg chloroquine base and with increased dosages up to 2250 mg base failed to cure the patients. The chloroquine sensitivity test in vitro was carried out in 3 patients, which showed that the Plasmodium falciparum strains were resistant to chloroquine at the R I level. The strains appeared to be similar to the Malaya Camp strain. In vivo observations revealed that the parasites were resistant at the R I level with a delayed recrudescence. The chloroquine resistant falciparum malaria cases, acquired in South Sumatra, may therefore be regarded as the first reported cases from a focus outside the already known two foci in Indonesia, namely East Kalimantan and Irian Jaya. It may be expected that chloroquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum will be encountered in other parts of Indonesia in the near future. The use of a combination of sulfadoxine and pyrimethamine should not be recommended in Indonesia because chloroquine is still considered the drug of choice against all malaria infections in Indonesia.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Differential distribution of hepatitis C virus subtypes in Asia: comparative study among Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines and Japan.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is currently classified into at least six major genotypes, each of which is further divided into a number of subtypes. It has been reported that prevalence of each subtype varies among different geographical regions of the world and that severity of liver disease and sensitivity to interferon treatment varies with different subtypes. The purpose of this study was to determine and compare the prevalence of each subtype among HCV isolates in different areas in Asia such as southern (Hat Yai) and northern (Chiang Mai) parts of Thailand, Indonesia (Surabaya), the Philippines (Manila) and Japan (Kobe). Sera were obtained from various groups of patients and tested for antibodies against HCV using second and/or third generation ELISA kits. RNA was extracted from anti-HCV-positive sera and reverse-transcribed into cDNA. The cDNA-preparations were subjected to nested PCR to amplify NS5B and 5'-untranslated region (5'UTR) sequences. Amplified fragments were sequenced and subtypes of the isolates were determined based on sequence similarities with reported sequences. In Chiang Mai and Hat Yai, Thailand, HCV-3a, HCV-1a and HCV-1b were common in various populations. HCV type 6 variants were commonly found among blood donors and drug addicts in Chiang Mai, but not in Hat Yai. In Surabaya, Indonesia, HCV-2a was frequently detected in blood donors, but less frequently in patients with chronic liver disease. In blood donors, HCV-1a, HCV-1b and HCV-1d were more strongly associated with elevation of serum aminotransferase levels than HCV-2a. HCV-1a was significantly more common in patients on maintenance hemodialysis than in blood donors or patients with chronic liver disease. HCV-1d was detected exclusively in Indonesia. Another unique subtype HCV-3g was found also in Indonesia, though less frequently than HCV-1d. In the Philippines, a vast majority of the isolates were either HCV-1a or HCV-1b. Thus, HCV subtype prevalence varies among different regions of Asia.

Hepacivirus↗
PubMed1989

Experimental infection of Indonesia Taenia (Samosir strain) in domestic animals.

Three 58-day old Small-Ear-Miniature (SEM) pigs, six 36-day old Landrace-Small-Ear-Miniature (L-SEM) pigs, and two 5-day old Holstein calves were each fed 3000 or 30,000 Indonesia Taenia (Samosir strain) eggs and sacrificed 27-195 days after inoculation. A total of 4922 cysticerci were recovered only from the livers of the three SEM pigs (1977 cysticerci) and six L-SEM pigs (2945 cysticerci). The infection rate in pigs was 100%. Cysticerci recovery rates of SEM and L-SEM pigs were 22.0% and 1.6%, respectively. Calves were not susceptible to Indonesia Taenia. More cysticerci were found in the liver parenchyma (L-SEM, 66.4%; SEM, 76.2%) than on the liver surface (L-SEM, 33.6%; SEM, 23.8%) of the infected animals. Most (99.86%) of the cysticerci recovered from the livers of L-SEM pigs were degenerated or calcified but 77.9% of those in the livers of SEM pigs were mature and only 22.1% were degenerated or calcified. Measurements of length, width, diameters of protoscolex, rostellum, and sucker and hooklet pattern indicated that Indonesia Taenia is very similar to Taiwan Taenia and very different from Taenia saginata and Taenia solium. The present findings indicate that Indonesia Taenia and Taiwan Taenia may be the same new species.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Causes of blindness at the "Wiyata Guna" School for the Blind, Indonesia.

AIM: To determine the anatomical site and patterns of cause of blindness in one of the biggest schools for the blind in Indonesia with a view to determining potentially preventable and treatable causes. METHODS: 165 students in one school for the blind in Bandung, Indonesia, were examined clinically and data reported using the WHO/PBL childhood blindness assessment form. RESULTS: Most of the students (96.4%) were blind (BL); 3% were severely visually impaired (SVI). The major causes of SVI/BL in this study were: (1) corneal staphyloma, corneal scar, and phthisis bulbi (mainly attributed to infection) in 29.7%; (2) retinal dystrophies (mainly Leber congenital amaurosis, early onset retinitis pigmentosa) in 20.6%; (3) congenital and familial cataract (13.3%); (4) microphthalmus, anophthalmus (10.9%). The whole globe was the major anatomical site of visual loss (32.7%), followed by the retina (26.0%), cornea (17.6%), lens (13.3%), optic nerve (6.1%), and uvea (4.3%). CONCLUSIONS: This is a small study in a selected population and the results should be interpreted with caution. This blind school study, adopting the WHO/PBL eye form for data analysing, is the first reported for Indonesia. Hereditary disease and infective causes of blindness are the predominant causes of blindness, accounting for 42.4% and 29.7%, respectively. This pattern of causes is a mixed pattern which lies in an intermediate position between the patterns seen in developing countries and those seen in developed countries. The importance both of preventive public health strategies and of specialist paediatric ophthalmic and optical services in the management of childhood blindness in Indonesia are therefore strongly suggested to cover the problems that exist.

Blindness↗
PubMed2005

Respiratory syncytial virus infection: denominator-based studies in Indonesia, Mozambique, Nigeria and South Africa.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the burden of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)-associated lower respiratory infections (LRI) in children in four developing countries. METHODS: A WHO protocol for prospective population-based surveillance of acute respiratory infections in children aged less than 5 years was used at sites in Indonesia, Mozambique, Nigeria and South Africa. RSV antigen was identified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay performed on nasopharyngeal specimens from children meeting clinical case definitions. FINDINGS: Among children aged < 5 years, the incidence of RSV-associated LRI per 1000 child-years was 34 in Indonesia and 94 in Nigeria. The incidence of RSV-associated severe LRI per 1000 child-years was 5 in Mozambique, 10 in Indonesia, and 9 in South Africa. At all study sites, the majority of RSV cases occurred in infants. CONCLUSION: These studies demonstrate that RSV contributes to a substantial but quite variable burden of LRI in children aged < 5 years in four developing countries. The possible explanations for this variation include social factors, such as family size and patterns of seeking health care; the proportion of children infected by human immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV); and differences in clinical definitions used for obtaining samples. The age distribution of cases indicates the need for an RSV vaccine that can protect children early in life.

Age Distribution↗
PubMed1995

The decline of admissions for xerophthalmia at Cicendo Eye Hospital, Indonesia, 1981-1992.

Xerophthalmia due to vitamin A deficiency is a leading cause of blindness in children and has been a serious problem in Indonesia. To determine whether progress has been made in the eradication of xerophthalmia, we assessed hospital admissions for xerophthalmia at Cicendo Eye Hospital, Bandung, Indonesia. The hospital admission registry from 1981 to 1992 was reviewed. Between January 1981 and December 1992, there were 117 admissions for xerophthalmia, and of these, 63 were boys and 54 were girls, with an average age of 3.9 +/- 0.3 years. Hospital admissions for xerophthalmia declined steeply from 1981 to 1985, with a few rare cases from 1985 through 1992. During the same period from 1981 through 1992, there were no overall changes in total hospital admissions or total pediatric admissions. These results suggest that xerophthalmia is becoming less common in Indonesia.

Age Distribution↗
PubMed2026

A comparative systematic review of pharmacist education systems and pharmacy service quality in ASEAN-5: Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, and Singapore.

BACKGROUND: The global transition toward patient-centered pharmaceutical care has exposed structural disparities in ASEAN pharmacy workforce training and deployment. This review examines four research questions: how pharmacy education systems and accreditation standards differ across Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, and Singapore (collectively, the ASEAN-5); the extent to which pre-registration education influences clinical service scope and professional confidence; how education reform and regulatory change have shaped pharmacist clinical roles; and what barriers and enablers exist for regional qualification harmonization. METHODS: A systematic literature review following PRISMA 2020 was conducted. Searches of PubMed/MEDLINE and Scopus, supplemented by grey literature, were completed in May 2026. Of 78 unique records screened, 46 studies published between 2005 and 2026 met inclusion criteria. Quality appraisal used an adapted Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool; synthesis employed narrative thematic analysis. RESULTS: The five countries represent four structurally distinct pharmacy education architectures: Thailand's standardized six-year Doctor of Pharmacy with dual specialization tracks; four-year Bachelor of Pharmacy programmes in Malaysia and the Philippines with institutional variation; Indonesia's clinically underdeveloped system despite rapid expansion; and Singapore's four-year Bachelor of Pharmacy followed by a nationally mandated one-year pre-registration pathway. Evidence links deeper clinical training to broader practice scope, higher confidence, and improved patient outcomes. Reform produced uneven results: Thailand's PharmD transition improved clinical recognition but exposed deployment paradoxes; Singapore achieved the strongest training-to-practice alignment; Indonesia's health insurance reforms were not absorbed by an underprepared workforce; the Philippines lacks a national competency framework. No binding mutual recognition arrangement was identified; divergent qualification structures, incompatible accreditation systems, and an asymmetric evidence base remain the primary barriers. DISCUSSION: These findings indicate that clinical service scope is bounded less by national policy ambition than by the depth and clinical orientation of the pre-registration education that precedes it, and that credentialing reforms which outpace a health system's capacity to absorb new clinical roles, or the reverse, do not by themselves translate into expanded practice. CONCLUSIONS: Pharmacy education across the ASEAN-5 remains nationally distinct and clinically uneven. Clinical service scope is directly bounded by pre-registration education quality. No country has fully closed the education-practice gap. Regional harmonization requires national-level educational reform as a prerequisite.

Humans↗
PubMed2005

Taeniasis/cysticercosis in Papua (Irian Jaya), Indonesia.

Reports showed that an important parasitic zoonotic disease caused by Taenia solium, Taenia saginata and Taenia asiatica is found endemic in several areas of Indonesia including Papua, Bali and North Sumatra. At present it is known that the highest prevalence of taeniasis/cysticercosis in Indonesia, caused by T. solium is among the indigenous communities in Papua (formerly Irian Jaya). In the early 1970s, 8-9% of stool samples from the Enarotali hospital, Paniai District (Irian Jaya) were found positive with Taenia eggs. The samples were from members of the Ekari (Kapauku) ethnic group. Stool samples from the Moni ethnic group, living east of surrounding lakes, were egg negative. Cysticerci of T. solium were discovered in pigs. During the years 1973-1976 cases of burns increased and were ultimately found to be primarily associated with epileptic seizures induced by neurocysticercosis cases. Among 257 cases of burns, 88 cases (62.8%) were suffering from epileptic seizures before or during hospitalization. In the year 1981 T. solium seropositive persons were mostly (16%) found in the endemic Obano village. In 1997 the parasite was discovered in Jayawijaya District, which is located approximately 250 km east of Paniai District. During 1991-1995, a local health center in Assologaima, Jayawijaya District reported 1120 new cases with burns and a further 293 new cases of epileptic seizures among 15,939 inhabitants. The histopathologic appearance and mitochondrial DNA analysis found the cysts to be similar to those of T. solium from other regions of the world. Sensitive and specific serological diagnostic methods were used and improved. Cysticerci were detected in dogs, as well as in pigs. A coproantigen test for detection of adult tapeworms in patients was carried out. Medical treatment with praziquantel for taeniasis and albendazole for cysticercosis (with prednisone and sodium phenytoin treatment in cases with neurocysticercosis) was undertaken. Lifestyle, religion, and socioeconomic aspects are important issues in the perpetuation and enhancing the endemicity of T. solium taeniasis and cysticercosis in Papua, Indonesia.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Prevalence of single and multiple HPV types in cervical carcinomas in Jakarta, Indonesia.

OBJECTIVES: Cervical cancer is the second most frequently occurring type of cancer in women worldwide. A persistent infection with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) is a necessary causal factor in cervical carcinogenesis. The distribution of HPV types in populations has been studied worldwide. In Indonesia, however, few data are available describing the prevalence of HPV. Cervical carcinoma is the most common female cancer in Indonesia and causes high morbidity and mortality figures. With HPV vaccination studies in progress, it is important to map the HPV status of a population that would benefit greatly from future prevention programs. METHODS: We tested 74 cervical cancer specimens from consecutive, newly diagnosed cervical cancer patients in the outpatient clinic of the Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital, Jakarta. After additional staining, the formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue samples were histologically classified. HPV presence and genotype distribution were determined by SPF10 polymerase chain reaction and line probe assay. RESULTS: HPV DNA of 12 different HPV types was detected in 96% of the specimens. The three most common types were 16 (44%), 18 (39%) and 52 (14%). In 14% of the specimens, multiple HPV types were present. The multiple HPV types were significantly more prevalent among adenosquamous carcinomas in comparison with squamous cell carcinoma or adenocarcinoma (P = 0.014). CONCLUSIONS: Distribution of HPV types in Indonesia with a more prominent role for HPV 18 is slightly different from that in other parts of the world. The high amount of multiple HPV infections found in adenosquamous carcinomas may prompt further research on the pathogenesis of this type of cervical tumours.

Carcinoma, Adenosquamous↗
PubMed2004

Human papillomavirus type 16 E6, E7, and L1 variants in cervical cancer in Indonesia, Suriname, and The Netherlands.

OBJECTIVE: Human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV 16) has several intratypic variants, and some are associated with enhanced oncogenic potential. For risk determination as well as for future vaccine development, knowledge about variants is important. Regarding the geographical distribution of HPV variants and the lack of data from Indonesia and Suriname, we studied the prevalence of HPV 16 variants in cervical cancer in these high incidence countries. Data were compared with The Netherlands, a low-risk country. METHODS: DNA samples from 74 formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded HPV 16-positive cervical carcinomas from Indonesia (Java, N = 22), Suriname (N = 25), and The Netherlands (N = 27) were amplified using primers specific for the E6, E7, and part of the L1 regions. Products were sequenced and analyzed. RESULTS: A specific Javanese variant, with mutations 666A in E7 and 6826T in L1, was found in 73% of the Indonesian samples, 56% having an additional mutation in the E6 open reading frame (ORF; 276G), giving the predicted amino acid change N58S. This Javanese variant was also found in three Surinamese samples, which reflects what could be expected from migration of Javanese people to Surinam. Other non-European variants were identified in Indonesian, Surinamese, and Dutch samples in 14%, 28%, and 19%, respectively. CONCLUSION: The majority of the HPV 16-positive cervical cancers in Indonesia are caused by a specific intratypic variant that was rarely found before in other countries.

Base Sequence↗
PubMed1997

Research collaboration in parasitology between Indonesia and Australia.

Indonesia and Australia are close neighbours sharing agro-ecological zones and common parasitological interests. Australia is an industrialised country and Indonesia is both industrialising and a developing country. The types of collaboration, contractual, collegiate, research collaboration and partnerships are briefly described. All forms of collaboration have and continue to exist between Australia and Indonesia. A survey of mammalian parasitology publications over the last 23 years indicates that the bulk of papers have been by Indonesian and non-Australian authors. Australian and Indonesian authors provided 4% of the total number of publications. The rational for collaboration is suggested to be the high degree of common multiple interests and the synergy of effort that can be derived from research partnerships. The most difficult issues in research collaboration are establishing the research priorities and, to a lesser extent, funding. The globalisation of the international research centre, International Livestock Research Institute, to include Asia will expand the opportunities for research collaboration. Details of the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research mandate in supporting parasitology research collaboration is briefly described. The past and current research collaborative activities are reviewed and opportunities for future collaboration are listed.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

The epidemiology and management of diabetes mellitus in Indonesia.

Predications indicate a potentially explosive increase in the prevalence of diabetes worldwide, especially in developing countries such as Indonesia. Studies of people living in rural areas of East Java and Bali show a prevalence rate of 1.5% in 1982 to 5.7% in 1995 among the urban population. Ujung Pandnag also experienced an increase, and recent studies in Manado found a dramatically high rate of 6.1% in urban areas. Preliminary results indicate varying prevalence between those living in urban and rural areas. Currently, Indonesia has an estimated 1.2-2.3% prevalence among people over 15 years. Geographically variation appears to be an influential factor, due to differences in ethnics, race, culture and lifestyle. Studies of diabetic families show a significantly high prevalence and, clinically speaking, the mode of treatment indicates the type of diabetes. Those who respond well to OHA among young diabetics (<40) are assumed to have the MODY variation of the disease. The level of obesity among the general population has increased, due partly to increased calorie intake and is a significant factor in the increased rate of diabetes. It is also more common among the elderly, as our results will show. The new types of the disease are clinically more difficult to assess than the classical types 1 and 2, as they require relatively costly genetic and immunological studies. The rate of LADA type diabetes was found to be relatively high (>20% for ICA and IAA and 2.3% for GAOA). A concensus on diabetes management has now been formulated in Indonesia and these guidelines are now used by all Indonesian health care professionals.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Female commercial sex workers in Kramat Tunggak, Jakarta, Indonesia.

Indonesia is predicted to face a severe AIDS epidemic in the near future. More than 60% of the reported HIV-positive cases in Indonesia can be attributed to heterosexual transmission; therefore, by the nature of their work, female commercial sex workers (FCSWs) constitute one of the communities at risk. No meaningful or effective STD/HIV prevention programs for FCSWs can be planned if there is no contextual understanding of these women as persons, the nature and the risks of their job and their relations with their clients and managers. Just as it is incorrect to assume that all women enter prostitution for the same reasons, educational approaches that are modeled on shallow stereotypes will be ineffective. Interweaving qualitative and quantitative methods, this research investigates the FCSWs in an 'official' brothel complex in Jakarta, Indonesia. Results of this study give insights of four typologies of FCSWs observed in Kramat Tunggak. The personal, professional, social and other differences which influenced the women into full-time sex work and affected their willingness and ability to engage in healthy and protective behaviors, are presented. Finally, based on those findings a recommendation on how to deliver health messages to the FCSWs is offered.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗