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PubMed1993

Gender differences in cochlear response time: an explanation for gender amplitude differences in the unmasked auditory brain-stem response.

Derived narrow-band auditory brain-stem responses (ABRs) in young normal-hearing subjects revealed a significant gender difference in response time between frequency regions of the cochlea. Females showed shorter delays than males between derived bands. This differential has not been previously reported. As in many early studies, the unmasked amplitude of the wave V complex was significantly larger (30%) in females than males. However, differences in amplitudes of the narrow-band responses were too small to account for the differential in the unmasked response. It is hypothesized that the larger amplitude of the unmasked wave V complex in females occurs because of a faster response time across the cochlea leading to better neural synchrony and, therefore, larger amplitudes. Furthermore, results can be explained by assuming that the stiffness gradient in the cochlea is 13% larger in females than in males. If males and females have the same cochlear tonotopic mapping, the female cochlea should be 13% shorter. This prediction is highly consistent with recent anatomical studies of cochlear length and gender. The results of the present study indicated possibly important cochlear mechanisms that influence the main parameters of ABRs. An understanding of these cochlear mechanisms may improve the diagnostic capabilities of ABRs in patients with peripheral hearing loss.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed2005

[Gender differences in cognitive functions].

Gender differences in neuropsychological functioning of patients with psychiatric disorders have been studied extensively in the last years. The available studies provide conflicting results, which can be attributed to the complexity of variables influencing cognitive sex differences. In this article we review the literature about gender differences in cognitive functions in healthy men and women and discuss the relevance of hormones, socio-cultural factors, educational factors and training on the occurrence of these sex differences. Furthermore we summarize the results from functional MRI experiments, which is a useful tool for noninvasively localizing areas in the brain involved in specific cognitive functions.

Brain↗
PubMed1998

Gender differences in ADHD?

This study examined possible gender differences in children and adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Results indicated that adult self-ratings differed significantly by gender. Adult women reported fewer assets and more problems than did male counterparts, but there was no gender difference with respect to age at referral, intelligence quotient, indicators of neuropsychological performance, or parent or teacher ratings of behavior. Referral bias against girls is a possible reason for previously reported gender differences, so we interpreted our results in light of the participants' referral patterns. There was a nonsignificant trend for girls with relatively more severe ratings of hyperactivity, conduct disorder, or inattention to be referred earlier than were boys. Overall, our results suggest no evidence of cognitive or neuropsychological differences by gender in samples that are sensitive to behavioral deviance in girls (as evidenced by early referral), but adult women's self-perception is comparatively poorer than that of adult men.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The role of spouses of substance abusers in treatment: gender differences.

Studies exploring gender differences among substance abusers in treatment have been fairly consistent in finding that females who enter treatment express more severe psychological and psychosocial disturbances than males, despite presenting with shorter and less intense substance abuse histories. However, strands of evidence suggest that the presence of a spouse, generally perceived as an asset in the treatment of the substance abuser, may have different implications for females than for males. In order to clarify this issue, 67 male and 18 female married substance abusers in treatment and their spouses were questioned on their substance use and psychological and social functioning. Similar to other studies, the female substance abusers reported greater disturbance on dimensions of employment and psychological functioning, but less severity of alcohol abuse. Comparison of male and female spouses, however, revealed that male spouses were likely to present with the following characteristics: (1) more symptoms of substance abuse and depression, (2) less overall physical well-being, and (3) to be less inclined to help others or be involved with their children than the female spouses. These findings are consistent with the view that the process of substance abuse is telescoped in females and is associated with more disturbed functioning in women on admission to treatment than in men. However, contextual differences--specifically in terms of availability of spousal support--may contribute significantly both to the understanding of differences in female versus male substance abusers in treatment as well as to the development of guidelines for adapting treatment based on gender.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Gender differences in smoking cessation.

Gender differences in smoking quit rates are frequently reported and are the subject of much speculation. This study examined the generalizability of gender differences in abstinence across study sites, treatments, and time of relapse, as well as potential mediators and moderators of gender effects. Participants were smokers who participated in 3 randomized clinical trials of the nicotine patch (N = 632). Men had higher cessation rates than women at all follow-ups. The impact of gender on abstinence was unaffected by controlling for study site, treatment, or time of relapse. There was little evidence for mediation or moderation of this relation by any of a host of predictor variables. The magnitude and consistency of the gender differential, coupled with an inability to account for it, highlights a compelling need for additional research specifically aimed at elucidating the relation between gender and abstinence.

Administration, Cutaneous↗
PubMed1990

Gender differences in regional cerebral blood flow.

Gender differences have been noted in neurobehavioral studies. The 133xenon inhalation method for measuring regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) can contribute to the understanding of the neural basis of gender differences in brain function. Few studies have examined gender differences in rCBF. In studies of normal subjects, women have higher rates of CBF than men, and this is related to age. Usually by the sixth decade men and women have similar flow rates. Fewer studies on rCBF in schizophrenia have examined sex differences. The pattern of higher flows for females maintains, but its correlates with gender differences in clinical as well as other parameters of brain function remain to be examined.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Gender differences in hypertension and kidney disease.

Gender differences exist in hypertension, the prevalence of several renal diseases, progression of established renal disease, and within the ESRD program, including renal transplantation. Sex hormones play key roles in the pathogenesis and outcome of disease processes. Observational data suggest gender differences in the prevalence and outcome of several renal diseases. The molecular mechanisms associated with physiologic phenomena needed to explain gender differences in renal disorders, however, remain largely obscure. The interaction of psychosocial, economic, medical, and genetic differences associated with discrepancies between the genders in the process of receiving a renal transplant and sustaining graft function are currently unclear. Additional studies are needed in these and other areas to explain gender differences in the incidence, prevalence, and outcome of renal disease.

Disease Progression↗
PubMed1991

Demoralization and gender differences in a kibbutz.

Gender differences in demoralization (depressive symptoms) were examined in a first-ever true prevalence study conducted in a kibbutz. The unusual organizational arrangements of this commune, where women have achieved higher levels of equality than in most other societies, offered a laboratory-like opportunity to test the psychosocial factors imputed as a partial explanation for the higher rates of demoralization in women. Demoralization was studied using the 27-item scale of the Psychiatric Epidemiology Research Interview (PERI) in all of the adult population of a single kibbutz. The response rate was close to 95%. Univariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to assess the effects of key sociodemographic and kibbutz-related variables on gender differences. The results showed that women had higher mean scores and rates even after these variables were controlled. The female:male demoralization ratio was well within the range of results obtained in non-socialist Israeli urban settings. The paper concludes with a discussion on the tentative relevance of the study results for the interpretation of the 2:1 female-male ratio of depression found in the epidemiological literature.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2001

Motives for HIV testing among drug users: an analysis of gender differences.

This article examines gender differences related to why 66 injection and noninjection drug users tested for HIV. Study participants from three northern California counties underwent an open-ended qualitative interview covering: access to HIV testing, the meaning of HIV testing and test results, drug and sexual risk behaviors, and behavior changes associated with HIV testing, as well as a brief quantitative survey. The responses were analyzed using the following categories: (a) financial incentives for testing, (b) concerns related to family members and significant others, and (c) personal anxieties due to lack of knowledge of HIV status. Analyses showed that gender differences exist regarding reasons for HIV testing. The most significant finding was that women were motivated to test with regard to concerns related to family and significant others in their life more so than men, particularly during pregnancy. The impetus to test for many individuals was dependent on a social setting, such as jail, hospital, or drug rehabilitation program. Further research examining the motivational factors why drug users test for HIV can provide valuable information for outreach and marketing of HIV counseling-and-testing services.

AIDS Serodiagnosis↗
PubMed2006

Acetaminophen metabolism does not contribute to gender difference in its hepatotoxicity in mouse.

Gender is an important factor in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. In the current study, gender difference in acetaminophen (APAP)-induced hepatotoxicity has been examined. Male and female mice were injected with a toxic dose of APAP (500 mg/kg, ip). Female mice were resistant to the hepatotoxic effects of APAP, depicted by serum alanine aminotransferase and sorbital dehydrogenase activities and histological analysis. Basal hepatic reduced glutathione (GSH) levels were lower in females than in males, suggesting that basal GSH level may not be a factor in determining the gender difference of APAP hepatotoxicity. APAP metabolism was slower in females than males, revealed by lower levels of glucuronidation and sulfation and higher amounts of free APAP in the livers of female mice. Lower basal Cyp1a2 mRNA levels and lower expression of Cyp1a2 and Cyp3a11 mRNAs after APAP dosing were also observed in females compared with males. However, there was no gender difference in N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine covalent binding 2 h after APAP administration, suggesting similar APAP bioactivation between genders. Moreover, liver Gst pi mRNA levels were significantly lower in females than males. This finding is consistent with a previous report, which showed that Gst pi knockout mice are protected from APAP-induced liver toxicity. In conclusion, gender difference of APAP-induced hepatotoxicity is not likely due to APAP metabolism. Perhaps, it is in part due to gender-dependent Gst pi expression. However, the mechanism underlying the association between reduction in Gst pi expression and hepatoprotective effect against APAP toxicity remains to be further explored.

Acetaminophen↗
PubMed2000

Gender differences in metabolism; nutrition and supplements.

For many decades researchers did not consider that there were any differences between the genders in the metabolic response to exercise. As a result, nutritional recommendations and exercise training prescriptions have not considered the potential for gender specific responses. More recently, we and others have demonstrated that females oxidize proportionately more lipid and less carbohydrate during endurance exercise as compared to males. The oxidation of amino acids is similarly lower in females as compared to males during exercise. These gender differences are partially mediated by a higher estrogen concentration in females. Specific areas where there are gender differences in nutritional/supplement recommendations include carbohydrate (CHO) nutrition, protein requirements and creatine (CRM) supplementation. We have shown that females do not carbohydrate load in response to an increase in dietary carbohydrate when expressed as a percentage of total energy intake (i.e., 55-75%), however if they consume >8 g CHOxkg(-1)xd(-1), they show similar increases as compared to males. Top sport male and female athletes require somewhat more dietary protein as compared to sedentary persons. The maximal increase is approximately 100% for elite male athletes and approximately 50-60% for elite female athletes. Fortunately, most athletes habitually consume this level of protein intake. We have recently demonstrated that females show a lesser increase in lean body mass following acute CRM loading as compared to males. Females also did not show reductions in protein breakdown in response to CRM loading, whereas males did. In the future I expect that there will be further research from which gender specific nutritional/supplement recommendations can be made.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Gender differences in blue collar workers' use of hearing protection.

In this study, the Health Promotion Model (HPM) was used as the basis for a structural equation model of male and female blue collar workers' self-reported use of hearing protection devices (HPDs). Overall use did not differ by gender; in addition, self-efficacy and barriers to use of HPDs were the two best predictors of this behavior for both men and women. Despite the similarities in HPD use and the most important predictors of that use between men and women, the predictive models differed by gender in several ways. Significant predictors of use among men also included age and value of use of HPDs. For women, ethnic status and plant site were additional significant predictors of use. Because the influences of plant site and gender on self-reported use of HPDs could not be separated in this study, further research should address worksite culture and assess differences by gender. Knowledge of these differences will aid development of more effective interventions and may increase the use of hearing protection.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Gender differences in three dimensional gait analysis data from 98 healthy Korean adults.

OBJECTIVES: The research hypothesis was that healthy adults would walk differently according to their gender when walked barefoot at their comfortable speed. The aim of this study was to prove the hypothesis in healthy Korean adults. DESIGN: Between-gender statistical comparisons of the gait analysis data including spatiotemporal, three-dimensional joint kinematic and kinetic data. BACKGROUND: There have been few attempts to identify the significant gender differences in gait pattern and to explore their possible causes. METHODS: Healthy 98 Korean adults (47 females and 51 males) volunteered. Gait analysis data was obtained with opto-electric system and force plates. Normalization was used to avoid the body size effect. Gender difference was tested with independent t-test, ancova, and two-way repeated anova. RESULTS: Females were shorter, both in height and leg length ( P < 0.05 ). The cadence and pelvic width were as great as in males. They walked slower than males due to shorter stride length ( P < 0.05 ). The females had still shorter stride length and narrower step width ( P < 0.05 ), and they walked as fast as the males. Females walked with their pelvis tilted more anteriorly and more up and down oblique motion, hip joints more flexed-adducted-internally rotated, knee joint in more valgus angles ( P = 0.05 ). CONCLUSIONS: The gait analysis data had significant gender differences. We assume that the difference is due to gender features of the gait-related anatomy and habits. Comparison with other research shows some evidence for racial differences.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Perceptions of sexual harassment: a re-examination of gender differences.

There is mixed evidence for gender differences in perceptions of sexual harassment. To help clarify the existence of gender differences, we examined the sexual-harassment perceptions of 409 state government employees in the western United States. Few gender differences were found. We also compared the workers' perceptions to findings from a previous study of students (Terpstra & Baker, 1987). The relative ordering of the incidents' perceived severity was very similar, but workers perceived a number of incidents to be more harassing than did students. Thus, the major differences found were between students and workers, not between genders. Potential theoretical and methodological causes of these findings are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: a meta-analysis.

In this article, we meta-analytically examine experimental studies to assess the moderating effect of provocation on gender differences in aggression. Convergent evidence shows that, whereas unprovoked men are more aggressive than women, provocation markedly attenuates this gender difference. Gender differences in appraisals of provocation intensity and fear of danger from retaliation (but not negative affect) partially mediate the attenuating effect of provocation. However, they do not entirely account for its manipulated effect. Type of provocation and other contextual variables also affect the magnitude of gender differences in aggression. The results support a social role analysis of gender differences in aggression and counter A. H. Eagly and V. Steffen's (1986) meta-analytic inability to confirm an attenuating effect of provocation on gender differences in aggression.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Gender differences in alcohol metabolism. Physiological responses to ethanol.

A gender difference in alcohol pharmacokinetics has been suggested to explain why women are more vulnerable to ethanol's toxic effects. The results of animal experiments suggest that females exhibit higher alcohol metabolic rates than males as a result of hormonal differences. Experimental results examining gender differences in human alcohol metabolism have been inconsistent; the diversity of experimental protocols and variety of pharmacokinetic parameters reported have made comparisons of these studies very difficult. Variability in alcohol metabolic rate between individuals of the same sex is often significant, preventing an assessment of gender differences in some studies. This chapter attempts to summarize the findings of studies from the last decade that examined the role of gender and sex hormone differences on ethanol metabolism in men and women. The role of body composition, genetic factors, gastric and hepatic alcohol dehydrogenase, and gastric absorption in creating gender differences in alcohol metabolism is discussed. Suggestions are offered that may result in better cross-study comparisons and more consistent experimental results.

Alcohol Dehydrogenase↗
PubMed1996

Gender differences in heart rate before and after autonomic blockade: evidence against an intrinsic gender effect.

OBJECTIVES: To document gender differences in heart rate in healthy young adult men and women, and examine the degree to which autonomic tone and other variables may be associated with the gender differences in heart rate. DESIGNS: Cohort study. SETTINGS: Clinical Research Center of a tertiary care medical center. PATIENTS: A volunteer sample of 20 healthy men and 23 healthy women between ages 21 and 39 years. INTERVENTIONS: Subjects were each studied three times: during the menstrual, follicular, and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle in women; and 5 to 10 days apart in men. Electrocardiograms (ECGs) were obtained at baseline and following double autonomic blockade with propranolol 0.2 mg/kg and atropine 0.04 mg/kg. Maximum exercise capacity was determined by bicycle ergometry. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Sinus cycle length at baseline and following double autonomic blockade, before and after correction for confounding variables. RESULTS: Men had longer sinus cycle length both at baseline and after double autonomic blockade (971 +/- 88 ms versus 918 +/- 115 ms, P < 0.02, and 645 +/- 41 ms versus 594 +/- 57 ms, P < 0.0001). Sinus cycle length in women was longer than during the menstrual than luteal phase but this difference could not account for the gender difference in sinus cycle length. Men also had a greater maximum exercise capacity than women (1295 +/- 167 kpm/min versus 857 +/- 227 kpm/min; P < 0.0001). By analysis of covariance, maximum exercise capacity was the most significant predictor of sinus cycle length (P < 0.0003 at baseline, and P < 0.001 post blockade) and gender did not have a significant effect. The relationship of maximum exercise capacity to sinus cycle length was blunted but not abolished by autonomic blockade. CONCLUSIONS: Sinus cycle length is longer in men than women. This difference appears to be associated with a gender difference in exercise capacity rather than intrinsic gender related properties of the sinus node or differences in autonomic tone. In addition, exercise induced bradycardia is mediated by both autonomic and nonautonomic factors in both genders.

Adrenergic beta-Antagonists↗
PubMed1994

The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence.

There are no gender differences in depression rates in prepubescent children, but, after the age of 15, girls and women are about twice as likely to be depressed as boys and men. In this article, three models for how gender differences in depression might develop in early adolescence are described and evaluated. According to Model 1, the causes of depression are the same for girls and boys, but these causes become more prevalent in girls than in boys in early adolescence. According to Model 2, there are different causes of depression in girls and boys, and the causes of girls' depression become more prevalent than the causes of boys' depression in early adolescence. According to Model 3, girls are more likely than boys to carry risk factors for depression even before early adolescence, but these risk factors lead to depression only in the face of challenges that increase in prevalence in early adolescence. Most studies of gender differences in depression have focused on the effects of individual variables on depression in girls and boys rather than on testing models of how these differences develop. Evidence for the variables most commonly thought to contribute to gender differences in depression in children and adolescents is reviewed, and this evidence is related to the three models for how these differences develop. It is concluded that Model 3 is best supported by the available data, although much more research is needed. Before adolescence, girls appear to develop more risk factors for depression than boys; girls also apparently face more new challenges in early adolescence than boys. It is argued that these factors combine, as specified in Model 3, to generate gender differences in depression beginning in early adolescence.

Adolescent↗