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PubMed2006

The role of friendship in the lives of male and female adolescents: does diabetes make a difference?

PURPOSE: We examined differences in the nature of friendship between adolescents with diabetes and healthy adolescents. We also examined whether friend support and negative relations with friends were related to health for both groups. METHOD: We interviewed 127 adolescents with diabetes and 129 healthy adolescents on two occasions, separated by one year. We measured aspects of friendship and psychological health among both groups as well as self-care behavior and metabolic control among adolescents with diabetes. We used logistic regression analysis to predict the presence of friends, repeated measures analysis of covariance to predict changes in friendship over time, and hierarchical multiple regression analysis to examine the relations of friendship to psychological health, self-care behavior, and metabolic control. RESULTS: Both groups of adolescents were equally likely to have a best friend and boyfriend/girlfriend, but healthy adolescents were more likely to have an other-gender friend. Adolescents with diabetes and healthy adolescents reported similar levels of friend support, but support increased over the year for healthy girls only. Boys with diabetes had the lowest levels of friend support. Negative relations with friends were inversely related to psychological health and predicted a decline in psychological health over time. Negative relations also predicted poor metabolic control and a deterioration of metabolic control over time. CONCLUSION: There are similarities and differences in the nature of friendship for adolescents with diabetes compared with healthy adolescents. Friendship serves a protective function for psychological health for both groups and has implications for physical health among those with diabetes.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1985

A longitudinal study of friendship development.

At 3-week intervals during their first term at the university, 84 male and female freshman completed questionnaires regarding their relationships with two same-sex individuals whom they had just met. Results showed that dyads which successfully developed into close friendships by the end of the fall school term differed behaviorally and attitudinally from dyads that did not progress. As the friendships developed, the intimacy level of dyadic interaction accounted for an increasing percentage of the variance in ratings of friendship intensity beyond that accounted for by the sheer quantity of interaction. Ratings of relationship benefits were consistently positively correlated with friendship intensity and increased as the relationship progressed. There were no differences in ratings of relationship costs between close and nonclose friends. Dyadic behavior patterns and attitude ratings at the end of the fall school term were good predictors of friendship status 3 months later. Motivational and situational factors were also correlated with friendship outcomes.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Friendship as a moderating factor in the pathway between early harsh home environment and later victimization in the peer group. The Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group.

Two prospective investigations of the moderating role of dyadic friendship in the developmental pathway to peer victimization are reported. In Study 1, the preschool home environments (i.e., harsh discipline, marital conflict, stress, abuse, and maternal hostility) of 389 children were assessed by trained interviewers. These children were then followed into the middle years of elementary school, with peer victimization, group social acceptance, and friendship assessed annually with a peer nomination inventory. In Study 2, the home environments of 243 children were assessed in the summer before 1st grade, and victimization, group acceptance, and friendship were assessed annually over the next 3 years. In both studies, early harsh, punitive, and hostile family environments predicted later victimization by peers for children who had a low number of friendships. However, the predictive associations did not hold for children who had numerous friendships. These findings provide support for conceptualizations of friendship as a moderating factor in the pathways to peer group victimization.

Child↗
PubMed1982

Friendship: an exploration and appreciation of ambiguity.

This paper examines the phenomenon of friendship from a social-psychological perspective. A discussion of the status of friendship in modern society provides the backdrop for an analysis of the form and content of friendship. The substance of friendship is said to lie in an appreciation and exploration of ambiguity. The focus of the paper is on the meaning of friendship relationships to people who become involved in them. Friendship is discussed in relation to individuality, character and emotional life.

Character↗
PubMed1991

Peer education in friendship cliques: prevention of adolescent smoking.

The use of the term 'peer' teacher in adolescent health education programs has been applied with a variety of definitions. In some programs student teachers have been in the same grade as those they instructed; in others, they have been older students teaching lower grade students. The method of selection of student teachers has also varied. In some programs, a popular vote of students has been used to choose the student teachers; in other programs, the adult teachers and principals have chosen the student teachers. The purpose of the program reported here was to conduct smoking prevention education in friendship cliques taught by the clique's peer leaders. The friendship cliques and their peer leaders were identified by a computerized algorithm analysis of responses to a friendship questionnaire. The curriculum focused on social skills to prevent smoking and consisted of 8 weeks of education during the sixth and seventh grade years of 347 adolescents. The program evaluation compared the friendship cliques with 'model' students identified by school officials who taught their classmates and adult teachers instructing their students. The prevention rates of friendship cliques suggest that research studying this approach is needed. A practical means of identifying friendship cliques and their leaders is suggested.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

School and neighborhood friendship patterns of blacks and whites in early adolescence.

This research examined the school and neighborhood friendships of 292 black and white children who attended an integrated junior high school. Most students reported having a close other-race school friend, but only 28% of the sample saw such a friend frequently outside of school. Reports of an interracial school friendship that extended to nonschool settings were significantly more common among black students than whites and among children who lived in integrated neighborhoods rather than segregated ones. Race differences in reported friendship behavior were also found on other friendship variables. Compared to whites, blacks reported more extensive neighborhood friendship networks but indicated that they talked to fewer friends during the school day. In addition, the study replicated prior findings that white girls report more peer social support than white boys but failed to find a gender difference in peer support among blacks. The discussion emphasizes the importance of the school/nonschool ecology and the need for further comparative study of white and black children's friendship patterns.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

A friend in need: the role of friendship quality as a protective factor in peer victimization and bullying.

This study examined friendship quality as a possible moderator of risk factors in predicting peer victimization and bullying. Children (50 boys and 49 girls, ages 10 to 13 years) reported on the quality of their best friendship, as well as their bullying and victimization tendencies. Parents reported on their child's internalizing and externalizing behaviors, in addition to bullying and victimization tendencies. Results indicated that externalizing problems were related to bullying behavior; however, friendship quality moderated this relation such that among children with externalizing behaviors, a high-quality friendship significantly attenuated bullying behavior. Internalizing problems and low friendship quality were significantly related to victimization; however, friendship quality did not moderate the relation between internalizing problems and victimization. Implications for interventions based on these findings are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

A friendship intervention for children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: preliminary findings.

Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are known to experience difficulty in peer relationships. Neither standard interventions for ADHD nor peer acceptance-oriented interventions fully remedy this problem. We propose that interventions targeting ADHD children's dyadic friendships may be more realistic strategies for improving peer relationships. Hence, a friendship intervention, implemented within the context of an intensive behavioral treatment program with 209 ADHD children, is described. A model is proposed in which the friend's antisocial behavior relates to parental compliance with the friendship intervention, and both the friend's antisocial behavior and parental compliance predict friendship quality and treatment response. Results indicate that children paired with peers lower on antisocial behavior and children whose parents had higher levels of compliance with the friendship intervention achieved higher quality friendships and were rated by teachers as more improved.

Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity↗
PubMed2006

Understanding and negotiating friendships: perspectives from an adolescent with Asperger syndrome.

This case study explored perceptions of friendship of an adolescent with Asperger syndrome. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, photographs taken by the adolescent, and quality of life and friendship measures. Data were analyzed using grounded theory principles and organized into three themes: (1) characteristics of a friend, (2) family involvement, and (3) enjoyment of friendships and desire to have them. The adolescent appeared to enjoy having friends, was interested in pursuing friendships, and had a basic understanding of many characteristics of friendships. He described negotiating his own and his friend's focused interests. Family members played important roles in the establishment and maintenance of the adolescent's friendships.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Links between family relationships and best friendships in the United States and Japan.

This study was designed to examine associations between family relationship quality and friendship quality in the United States and Japan using surveys of representative samples of individuals ranging in age from 13 to 93 in the United States (n = 1498) and Japan (n = 1641). Associations between family relationships and friendships were stronger and more pervasive in Japan than in the United States. In the United States, there was some evidence that having higher quality family relationships was associated with having higher quality friendships; in Japan, there was similar evidence for consistency in quality across relationships, as well as evidence that qualities lacking in one relationship were sometimes present in another. Gender and age did not moderate the associations between family relationship and friendship quality in either country. These findings extend into adulthood work that has previously focused on family relationships and friendships of children and suggest cultural differences in patterns of association between family relationships and friendships.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1976

Self-disclosure in friendship.

An experimental investigation of the influence of self-disclosure on friendship was conducted by manipulating the level of self-disclosure. 65 same-sex pairs were randomly assigned to one of three treatment conditions, intimate self-disclosure, nonintimate self-disclosure and control (no disclosure); the treatment conditions were independently verified by judges' ratings. One member of each pair was randomly selected as the confederate or first speaker and was provided with a list of 7 conversation topics. There were no lists provided in the control condition. The dependent variable, level of friendship as measured by the Acquaintance Description Form (Wright, 1969), was rated before and after Ss engaged in self-disclosure, and the influence of the experimental conditions on friendship scores was assessed by analyses of covariance. The results showed that the general level of friendship increased as a function of intimate and nonintimate self-disclosure; however, intimate disclosure produced greater increases in friendship than nonintimate disclosure. The unique influence of self-disclosure on male friendship patterns is discussed.

Female↗
PubMed2002

Friendship closeness inventory: development and psychometric evaluation.

This study developed a psychometrically sound measure of closeness in Australian men's (n = 59) and women's (n = 77) same-sex friendships, the Friendship Closeness Inventory. Subscales were developed to measure both masculine and feminine styles of closeness in three domains of Emotional Closeness, Behavioural Closeness, and Cognitive Closeness. The inventory was subjected to reliability checks which supported the reliability of each scale, and factor analyses which supported the 3-factor design. Correlations among ratings on subscales suggested that the affective, behavioural, and cognitive dimensions are distinguishable but related components of friendship. Group comparisons indicated that women rated themselves closer to their same-sex friends on the affective dimension than men. Researchers have suggested that sex-role socialisation may partly account for sex differences in self-ratings of emotional expressiveness in friendships. There were no significant differences between men's and women's ratings on the behavioural and cognitive aspects of friendships. The cognitive element may need further exploration in further scale development as it measures only one aspect of cognitive closeness: the perceived influence of friends. Pending further validation, the inventory appears potentially useful for research exploring affective, behavioural, and cognitive elements of young men's and women's friendships.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Individual and structural origins of friendship and social position among professionals.

Friendship affects individual and organizational well-being through direct relations, social positions, and complex network structures. In this study, the authors use longitudinal data from 2 groups of master's of business administration students to increase understanding of how friendship networks develop. The authors propose and test a dynamic model in which attribute similarity facilitates dyadic friendship ties, as well as similar network centrality and social position; early friendship increases later similarity in structural position and centrality; and early structural similarity enhances the likelihood of future friendship. Findings largely supported the model, demonstrating how homophily and early social contacts can jointly shape maturing friendship networks.

Adult↗
PubMed1988

Friendship patterns of mildly learning handicapped and nonhandicapped high school students.

Participant observation techniques were employed in a high school setting to document the friendship patterns of 32 mildly learning handicapped and 32 nonhandicapped adolescents. Three features of friendship were examined: intimacy, empathy, and stability over time. Handicapped adolescents were found to have fewer friendships than did their nonhandicapped counterparts and less stable friendships. There was less evidence of intimacy and empathy between pairs of handicapped peers. Variation in friendship behavior within both populations was noted, and factors contributing to difficulties in achieving fuller friendship were discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Friendships and social networks in childhood and adolescence: fluidity, reliability, and interrelations.

Social networks and friendships were tracked over a 3-week period for 132 students enrolled in fourth- and seventh-grade classrooms. Individual interviews were employed to collect data on friendships. Social group membership was determined by the composite social-cognitive map (SCM) procedure and by self-reports. Considerable overlap was found among the methods for establishing relational patterns (i.e., friendships, self-reported groups, composite social-cognitive maps). When loose criteria for stability were employed, high stability was found in friendships (p = .56-.75) and social group membership (p = .90) over a 3-week period. But when stringent criteria were employed, only modest social relationship stability was observed in both methods, suggesting that there is much greater fluidity in peer bonds than has been generally recognized. The relationship between friendship and social network measures, the distinctive information yielded by social networks, and gender and age differences in group structure, fluidity, and friendships are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Interactions between family environment and friendship and associations with self-perceived well-being during early adolescence.

Using a sample of 138 early adolescents and their parents, we examined the hypothesis that family and friendship measures would moderate each other's associations with measures of children's perceptions of their adjustment and well-being. Family environment was assessed by asking parents to complete the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Scale II. A sociometric nomination procedure and the Friendship Quality Scale were completed by the subjects as assessments of reciprocity and quality in their best friendship relations. The Perceived Competence Scale for Children was used to assess children's adjustment. Stronger associations were observed between the family measures and the adjustment measures in children without a close friendship than in children with such a relationship. Also, friendship was more strongly linked to outcome measures for children from low adaptive and low cohesive families than for children in more adaptive and cohesive families. These findings indicate that experiences in the family and friendship domains interact in their associations with children's impressions of their adjustment during early adolescence.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

The friendships of delinquents.

This article is a review of research concerning the friendships of delinquents and nondelinquents. Contrasting theories and corollary research have pointed to either the distinctiveness of delinquent friendships or to the commonality with normal friendships. On close examination, with exceptions due to methodological and sample features, the research has been more supportive of differences in behavioral, cognitive, and affective characteristics of friendships. Greater conflict, poorer attachment quality, lesser ability to repair relationships, cognitive distortions, and poorer social-cognitive problem solving characterize delinquent friendships. There is little support for the superior quality of friendships of delinquents, as some had speculated. A failure to find differences between delinquents and nondelinquents in certain studies may be traced to use of single-index measures of qualitative aspects or variations in the sample studied, but this cannot be taken to mean there are no differences in the population from which the samples were drawn.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Concurrent and longitudinal links between friendship and peer victimization: implications for befriending interventions.

This short-term longitudinal study examined the associations between peer reports of victimization and self-reported friendship among early adolescents. It was carried out to test the view that friendship provides protection against victimization (called the "friendship protection hypothesis"). Data were collected at two points within a school year, separated by 6 months. At Time 1, 170 pupils provided data, and 158 of these did so again at Time 2. Three sets of findings were consistent with the friendship protection hypothesis. First, at Time 1 those early adolescents who had a reciprocated best friend in their home class received significantly fewer peer nominations for victimization than did classmates without a reciprocated best friend. Second, those early adolescents that did not have best friend at either Time 1 or Time 2 showed the highest increase in victimization over the course of the study, whereas those that did have a best friend at both Times 1 and 2 showed the highest falls in victimization. Third, a hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that a decrease in conflict and betrayal reported to characterize the participants' best friendship was associated with falls in victimization. The implications of these results for anti-bullying initiatives based on "befriending" principles were discussed.

Adolescent↗