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PubMed2005

Teachers' emotional expression about disruptive boys.

OBJECTIVES: To assess teachers' emotional expression about pupils using the Five Minute Speech Sample (FMSS) and coding procedures for parental expressed emotion (EE). To compare EE for disruptive and non-disruptive pupils. METHOD: Twenty-one teachers provided speech samples for both a disruptive and a non-disruptive pupil in their class selected using standard behaviour rating scales. RESULTS: Teachers' emotional expression was reliably measured using EE codings. Teachers displayed no emotional overinvolvement (EOI) and made few critical comments. High EE, characterized by criticism and a lack of positive comments, was associated with children's behavioural difficulties. Multiple regression suggested that conduct problems rather than hyperactivity were associated with high EE. DISCUSSION: Results support the application of certain elements of the EE construct to teachers' emotional expression about pupils. However, there was an absence of EOI and a lack of association between relationship and other EE categories. The absence of this association suggests that EE might be most usefully considered as a measure of teachers' emotional response to pupils, rather than the emotional quality of the teacher-pupil relationship.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

The importance of being flexible: the ability to both enhance and suppress emotional expression predicts long-term adjustment.

Researchers have documented the consequences of both expressing and suppressing emotion using between-subjects designs. It may be argued, however, that successful adaptation depends not so much on any one regulatory process, but on the ability to flexibly enhance or suppress emotional expression in accord with situational demands. We tested this hypothesis among New York City college students in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attacks. Subjects' performance in a laboratory task in which they enhanced emotional expression, suppressed emotional expression, and behaved normally on different trials was examined as a prospective predictor of their adjustment across the first two years of college. Results supported the flexibility hypothesis. A regression analysis controlling for initial distress and motivation and cognitive resources found that subjects who were better able to enhance and suppress the expression of emotion evidenced less distress by the end of the second year. Memory deficits were also observed for both the enhancement and the suppression tasks, suggesting that both processes require cognitive resources.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1999

Cultural difference in recognition of facial emotional expression: contrast between Japanese and American raters.

Using the Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expressions of Emotion (JACFEE) photo set, the relationship between recognition and intensity ratings of universal facial expressions of emotions in 123 Japanese undergraduate students was examined and compared with data reported by American raters. In Japanese raters, although the intensity was rated as high for some of the poses, their correctness scores were poor, suggesting a serious misjudgment of the intended emotions as defined in the JACFEE photo set. Only in Japanese raters were significant relationships between the intensity scores and the percentage correctness scores for sadness detected (r = 0.97, P < 0.0001), but no significant relationship was observed for other emotions. The robust correlation suggests the possibility that Japanese raters might be more responsive to certain emotional expressions when they are fully or intensely expressed. It is proposed that the facial emotional expression paradigm cannot be applied to the psychiatric setting without first refining for cultural differences.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Developmental differences in the understanding of and reaction to others' inhibition of emotional expression.

In Study 1,160 individuals from kindergarten (kd), 3rd, 6th, 9th, and college grades were presented story protagonists who facially expressed or did not express sadness/fear when encountering events that likely caused (relevant-inhibitory cause) or did not cause (irrelevant cause) the inhibition of the expression of emotion. In Study 2, 108 kd, 3rd-, and 6th-grade children viewed peers engaging in real interactions similar to the stories. In both studies, kindergartners judged that relevant-inhibitory causes decreased a peer's emotions. Older individuals displayed an understanding of the inhibition of emotional expression by ascribing greater emotion to the peer under relevant-inhibitory than irrelevant causal conditions. In Study 2, age differences in children's search for social information and prosocial behavior paralleled judgments of emotion.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

Frontal electroencephalographic correlates of individual differences in emotion expression in infants: a brain systems perspective on emotion.

Emotion expressions can be characterized by both the type of emotion displayed and the intensity with which the emotion is expressed. Individual differences in these two aspects of emotion appear to vary independently and may perhaps account for distinct dimensions of temperament, personality, and vulnerability to psychopathology. We reviewed several sets of data gathered in our laboratory that indicate that these two dimensions of emotion expression are associated with distinct and independent patterns of frontal EEG activity in infants. Specifically, whereas the type of emotion expression was found to be associated with asymmetries in frontal EEG activity, the intensity of emotion expression was found to be associated with generalized activation of both the right and the left frontal regions. Moreover, we reviewed and provided evidence that measures of asymmetrical frontal activity are better predictors of individual differences in the tendency to express certain emotions, such as distress and sadness, whereas measures of generalized frontal activity are better predictors of individual differences in emotional reactivity and emotion intensity. The neuroanatomical bases of emotion were discussed with special reference to the role of the frontal lobe in emotion regulation. It was hypothesized that the frontal activation asymmetries that have been found to accompany emotion expressions reflect specific regulation strategies. The left frontal region is specialized for regulation strategies involving action schemes that serve to maintain continuity and stability of the organism-environment relation and of ongoing motor schemes, such as those involved in language and the expression of happiness and interest. In contrast, the right frontal region appears to be specialized for regulation strategies that involve processing novel stimuli that disrupt ongoing activity, such as might occur during the expression of fear, disgust, and distress. Furthermore, it was proposed that individual differences in patterns of frontal EEG asymmetries during emotion may be related to socialization influences rather than solely innate factors. It was speculated that the pattern of generalized frontal lobe activation that accompanies the experience of intense emotions may reflect, in part, the relatively diffuse influence of subcortical structures on the cortex and may serve to increase the infant's general readiness to receive and respond to significant external stimuli.

Affect↗
PubMed2000

Vicarious emotional experience and emotional expression in group psychotherapy.

Emotional arousal is a key concept in most theories of change. To be able to understand the role of emotional expression better, two treatments, cognitive therapy (CT) and focused expressive psychotherapy (FEP; a manualized form of Gestalt therapy), with opposite process assumptions about the expression of emotions were compared. Additionally vicarious emotional experience in the sense of an underlying emotional contagion was examined. Clients suffering from major depression were rated for the expression of emotion in three randomly selected sessions of a 20-session treatment course. While the types of emotions generally experienced by CT clients and FEP clients did not differ significantly, differences in the subgroups of active and observing-group members were found. This indicated that the process assumptions made by the respective treatments were only valid for the actively participating clients and not for the observing group members. Emotional contagion as a process was not supported.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Which cheek to turn? The effect of gender and emotional expressivity on posing behavior.

Nicholls et al. (1999, Proc. Royal Soc. B, 266, 1517-1522) demonstrated that models turn their left or right cheeks when expressing or concealing emotion, respectively. This study examined whether emotionally expressive individuals are more likely to turn their left cheek when posing for a photograph than less emotionally expressive individuals. One hundred twenty-four normal participants completed an Emotional Expressivity Scale (EES) and posed for a photograph. Females had a higher EES than males and there was a trend for left cheek posers to have a higher EES than right cheek posers. Females were more likely to turn their left cheek than were males. Results support our argument that emotionally expressive individuals turn their left cheek when posing. The higher incidence of leftward poses in females than males may reflect the higher EES for females. These results support the proposition that the leftward bias in painted portraits is related to a desire to capture the emotive qualities of the left side of the face.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Serial pathways from primate prefrontal cortex to autonomic areas may influence emotional expression.

BACKGROUND: Experiencing emotions engages high-order orbitofrontal and medial prefrontal areas, and expressing emotions involves low-level autonomic structures and peripheral organs. How is information from the cortex transmitted to the periphery? We used two parallel approaches to map simultaneously multiple pathways to determine if hypothalamic autonomic centres are a key link for orbitofrontal areas and medial prefrontal areas, which have been associated with emotional processes, as well as low-level spinal and brainstem autonomic structures. The latter innervate peripheral autonomic organs, whose activity is markedly increased during emotional arousal. RESULTS: We first determined if pathways linking the orbitofrontal cortex with the hypothalamus overlapped with projection neurons directed to the intermediolateral column of the spinal cord, with the aid of neural tracers injected in these disparate structures. We found that axons from orbitofrontal and medial prefrontal cortices converged in the hypothalamus with neurons projecting to brainstem and spinal autonomic centers, linking the highest with the lowest levels of the neuraxis. Using a parallel approach, we injected bidirectional tracers in the lateral hypothalamic area, an autonomic center, to label simultaneously cortical pathways leading to the hypothalamus, as well as hypothalamic axons projecting to low-level brainstem and spinal autonomic centers. We found densely distributed projection neurons in medial prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortices leading to the hypothalamus, as well as hypothalamic axonal terminations in several brainstem structures and the intermediolateral column of the spinal cord, which innervate peripheral autonomic organs. We then provided direct evidence that axons from medial prefrontal cortex synapse with hypothalamic neurons, terminating as large boutons, comparable in size to the highly efficient thalamocortical system. The interlinked orbitofrontal, medial prefrontal areas and hypothalamic autonomic centers were also connected with the amygdala. CONCLUSIONS: Descending pathways from orbitofrontal and medial prefrontal cortices, which are also linked with the amygdala, provide the means for speedy influence of the prefrontal cortex on the autonomic system, in processes underlying appreciation and expression of emotions.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Expressed emotion and schizophrenia in north India. I. Cross-cultural transfer of ratings of relatives' expressed emotion.

A bilingual rater was trained in English in a technique of assessing relatives emotional attitudes to patients, and was then required to rate material in Hindi without any further experience. This strategy revealed that the rating of critical comments, hostility and positive remarks could be transferred from English to Hindi without distortion. There were problems with the remaining two scales, over-involvement and warmth, but these were due to technical issues connected with rating and not to cross-cultural distortion.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Development and preliminary validation of a questionnaire assessment of expressed emotion.

A questionnaire for management of expressed emotion was constructed. It consisted of two scales, criticism and emotional overinvolvement. The questionnaire and the Camberwell Family Interview were then administered to relatives of schizophrenics and preliminary assessments of scale reliabilities and concurrent validities were done. Both questionnaire scales were reliable. With respect to validity the criticism scale correctly classified 88% of the subjects relative to the criticism scale of the interview. The emotional overinvolvement scale was less satisfactory (67%) but still assisted in classification of over-all expressed emotion. Expressed emotion, classification by the questionnaire, correctly identified 84% of the subjects with respect to the interview.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Control and controllability: beliefs and behaviour in high and low expressed emotion relatives.

BACKGROUND: Expressed emotion (EE) is a measure of the family environment that is a well replicated psychosocial predictor of psychiatric relapse. Theoretical models of EE place heavy emphasis on the notion of control. We explored the extent to which high and low EE relatives made both attributions of control about patients and engaged in controlling behaviours. METHODS: Trained raters who were blind to information about EE coded interviews with 35 relatives of patients with schizophrenia and 42 relatives of patients with unipolar depression. Relatives were rated on two reliable scales that assessed relatives' tendencies to make illness controllability attributions and relatives' efforts to exert direct behavioural control over patients. RESULTS: In both the schizophrenia and depressed groups, high-EE relatives attributed more control to their ill family members than did low EE relatives. They also behaved in a more controlling manner. Examination of patients' clinical outcomes during a 9-month follow-up period revealed that high levels of behavioural control on the part of relatives significantly predicted relapse in patients with schizophrenia but not in patients with depression. CONCLUSIONS: These findings support the attribution-based model of EE. They further suggest that controlling behaviours on the part of relatives may mediate the EE-relapse link in schizophrenia. Such behaviours may be important targets for modification in family-based interventions for schizophrenia.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Psychological adjustment following diagnosis and treatment of cancer: an examination of the moderating role of positive and negative emotional expressivity.

In support of cognitive processing models, emotional expression appears to reduce associations between intrusions and psychological distress. Past research has focused primarily on the role of the expression of negative emotion, or emotion in general, in cognitive processing and adjustment. In the present study, we examined the role of both positive and negative emotional expressivity on relations between intrusions and both distress and avoidance among 93 individuals diagnosed with and treated for cancer. We hypothesized stronger negative associations between intrusive thoughts and both distress and avoidance for those individuals lower in positive or negative expressivity. Results generally supported hypotheses with regard to relations of intrusions and distress in association with positive expressivity. Negative expressivity, however, moderated relations between intrusions and distress, but not intrusions and avoidance. These findings underscore the importance of examining the impact of individual differences in negative, as well as positive, emotional expression on cognitive processing and psychological adjustment.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1993

Nonverbal and verbal emotional expression and health.

The spontaneous nonverbal expression of emotion is related to immediate reductions in autonomic nervous system activity. Similar changes in specific autonomic channels occur when individuals are encouraged to verbally express their emotions. Indeed, these physiological changes are most likely to occur among individuals who are either verbally or nonverbally highly expressive. These data suggest that when individuals must actively inhibit emotional expression, they are at increased risk for a variety of health problems. Several experiments are summarized which indicate that verbally expressing traumatic experiences by writing or talking improves physical health, enhances immune function, and is associated with fewer medical visits. Although less research is available regarding nonverbal expression, it is also likely that the nonverbal expression of emotion bears some relation to health status. We propose that the effectiveness of many common expressive therapies (e.g., art, music, cathartic) would be enhanced if clients are encouraged to both express their feelings nonverbally and to put their experiences into words.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1992

Implications for expressed emotion therapy within a family therapeutic context.

Expressed emotion instruments measure variant levels of criticism, blaming, and anger within families of mentally ill people. Some theorists believe that high levels of expressed emotion predispose schizophrenic patients for relapse. However, recent trends in family therapy indicate that high expressed emotion may naturally result from caring for an ill family member. Families may therefore often feel unfairly blamed by practitioners for causing mental illness. The author examines the usefulness of integrating expressed emotion measures into family therapy from three theoretical perspectives: the transactional perspective, the coping and adaptation perspective, and the systems perspective. Each of these perspectives provides a framework for incorporating expressed emotion measures into the broader context of research on and treatment of schizophrenia. The author postulates that appropriate controls designed to reduce pent-up emotion in families must accompany expressed emotion interventions in family therapy. Appropriate controls might include exercise, meditation, spiritual focus, or membership in a support group.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1992

The meaning of expressed emotion: theoretical issues raised by cross-cultural research.

The finding that expressed emotion is associated with the course of psychiatric disorder has generated a great deal of clinical and research interest in expressed emotion as an important risk factor. Theoretical elucidation of the construct of expressed emotion has lagged considerably behind this interest, however. The authors contribute to a dialogue on what is inside the "black box" called expressed emotion. They argue that cross-cultural research can provide an empirical basis for the theoretical grounding of expressed emotion factors. A comparative approach reveals that the construct of expressed emotion is essentially cultural in nature. The constellation of emotions, attitudes, and behaviors that are indexed by the expressed emotion method represent cross-culturally variable features of family response to an ill relative. Questions surrounding the cultural validity of the construct of expressed emotion, the qualitative dimensions of expressed emotion, and statistically significant cross-cultural variations in expressed emotion profiles are discussed. Finally, the authors provide an outline of diverse (cultural, psychobiological, social-ecological) features of expressed emotion. Anthropological analysis of expressed emotion reveals that although expressed emotion indexes a Pandora's box of diverse features, culture provides the context of variation through which these factors are most productively analyzed.

Anthropology, Cultural↗
PubMed2006

Defining and diagnosing involuntary emotional expression disorder.

Uncontrollable episodes of emotional expression occur in a variety of neurological conditions. This emotional disinhibition syndrome is characterized by episodes of crying or laughing that are unrelated to or out of proportion to the eliciting stimulus. This syndrome is common among patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, stroke, and traumatic brain injury and a variety of terms and definitions have been used to describe it. The confusing nomenclature has been a barrier to understanding, diagnosis, and treatment of this disorder. The authors propose a unifying term, involuntary emotional expression disorder (IEED), and provide diagnostic criteria for this disorder.

Crying↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Schizophrenia and expressed emotion.

Research on expressed emotion (EE) is considered in the historical context of writings about disturbed family communication patterns and schizophrenia. More recent findings about the interaction between EE and schizophrenic relapse and the relevance of these findings for both clients and their relatives/carers are also summarized. The author offers recommendations for developing programs that focus on the client's social skills deficits.

Communication↗