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PubMed2006

Foreign-grammar acquisition while watching subtitled television programmes.

BACKGROUND: Past research has shown that watching a subtitled foreign movie (i.e. foreign language in the soundtrack and native language in the subtitles) leads to considerable foreign-language vocabulary acquisition; however, acquisition of the grammatical rules has failed to emerge. AIMS: The aim of this study was to obtain evidence for the acquisition of grammatical rules in watching subtitled foreign movies. Given an informal context, younger children were predicted to outperform older children in acquiring a foreign language; however, older children will take more advantage of explicit instruction compared with younger children. SAMPLE: In Experiment 1, 62 sixth-graders from a primary school and 47 sixth-graders from a secondary school volunteered to participate. The participants in Experiment 2 were 94 sixth-graders from primary schools and 84 sixth-graders from secondary schools. METHOD: The two experiments manipulated the instructions (incidental- vs. intentional-language learning). Moreover, before the experiments began, some participants explicitly received some of the foreign grammatical rules (presented rules), while the movie contained cases of presented rules as well as cases of rules which had to be inferred (not-presented rules). RESULTS: Rule acquisition through the movie only was not obtained; there was a strong effect of advance rule presentation but only on the items of presented rules, particularly among the older participants. CONCLUSIONS: Contrary to vocabulary, grammar may be too complicated to acquire from a rather short movie presentation.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Impact of explicit information on implicit motor-sequence learning following middle cerebral artery stroke.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Recovery of motor skills following stroke is supported, in part, by the implicit memory system. However, attempts to guide learning commonly use explicit instructions concerning "how to" perform a movement task. The purpose of this work was to systematically investigate the impact of explicit information (EI) on implicit motor-sequence learning using the ipsilesional arm in people with damage in the middle cerebral artery (MCA) distribution. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Ten people with unilateral stroke in the MCA distribution affecting the sensorimotor cortical areas and 10 people with no known pathology or impairment (control participants) were randomly divided into 2 groups. One group was provided with EI and one group was not (EI and No-EI groups, respectively) as the participants practiced an implicit motor-sequencing task over 3 days, with a retention test on day 4. RESULTS: A 3-way interaction demonstrated that, across days of practice, EI had opposite effects on implicit motor-sequence performance for the 2 groups. Post hoc tests confirmed that EI facilitated the performance of the control participants in the EI group but interfered with the performance of the participants with stroke in the EI group. This interference effect persisted, and was evident during the retention test in the participants with stroke in the EI group. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Explicit information was detrimental for implicit motor-sequence learning following MCA stroke. Rehabilitation outcomes may benefit from consideration of stroke location when determining the degree to which EI can augment implicit motor skill learning.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2005

The influence of the response-stimulus interval on implicit and explicit learning of stimulus sequence.

Three experiments investigated the influence of the response-stimulus interval (RSI) on implicit and explicit learning of stimulus sequences. Participants responded to numerals presented in predetermined positions with alternating long and short RSIs. Half of the participants were instructed explicitly to learn the position sequence. In the transfer phase of Experiments 1 and 2, changing RSI patterns reduced the expression of incidental and intentional learning of position sequence. In Experiment 3 the position sequence was transformed, except that sub-sequences demarcated by long RSIs remained unchanged; this greatly reduced the expression of intentional learning, and slightly reduced that of incidental learning. These results indicate that in implicit learning, stimulus sequences are learned under the constraints of RSIs, whereas in explicit learning, learning independent of RSIs, as well as learning constrained by RSIs, occurs.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Explicit information interferes with implicit motor learning of both continuous and discrete movement tasks after stroke.

A large portion of the rehabilitation experience after stroke relies on implicit learning. However, our understanding of how best to facilitate motor learning after stroke is limited by a paucity of research that has explored the interaction between explicit information and implicit learning across various task domains. Previously we reported that the delivery of explicit instructions disrupted implicit motor learning after stroke that involved the sensorimotor cortical areas or basal ganglia. The purpose of this study was to determine the robustness of these findings by determining whether they could be replicated with 2 motor tasks, one discrete and one continuous, employed by the same group of participants. Ten individuals with stroke in the sensorimotor cortical areas (SMC), 10 with stroke in the basal ganglia (BG), and 10 age-matched healthy controls (HC) participated in this study. Each completed 3 days of practice of both a discrete implicit motor task (the serial reaction time task) and a continuous motor task (the continuous tracking task); all returned on a fourth day for retention tests. By random designation, participants were divided into either the explicit information (EI) or no explicit information (No-EI) groups. Consistent with previous results, we found that the response to explicit information after stroke was uniformly negative regardless of task or lesion location; both stroke groups demonstrated an interference effect of explicit information while the healthy control group did not. Strengthening these findings is the fact that the interference effect of explicit information was not task dependent. This point is particularly important for rehabilitation scientists as they instruct clients during various therapeutic tasks after stroke. Our data suggest that certain forms of explicit information delivered before task practice may not be as useful for learning as discovering the solution to the motor task with practice alone, and this is regardless of the type of task being learned.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Instruction-specific brain activations during episodic encoding. a generalized level of processing effect.

In a within-subject design we investigated the levels-of-processing (LOP) effect using visual material in a behavioral and a corresponding PET study. In the behavioral study we characterize a generalized LOP effect, using pleasantness and graphical quality judgments in the encoding situation, with two types of visual material, figurative and nonfigurative line drawings. In the PET study we investigate the related pattern of brain activations along these two dimensions. The behavioral results indicate that instruction and material contribute independently to the level of recognition performance. Therefore the LOP effect appears to stem both from the relative relevance of the stimuli (encoding opportunity) and an altered processing of stimuli brought about by the explicit instruction (encoding mode). In the PET study, encoding of visual material under the pleasantness (deep) instruction yielded left lateralized frontoparietal and anterior temporal activations while surface-based perceptually oriented processing (shallow instruction) yielded right lateralized frontoparietal, posterior temporal, and occipitotemporal activations. The result that deep encoding was related to the left prefrontal cortex while shallow encoding was related to the right prefrontal cortex, holding the material constant, is not consistent with the HERA model. In addition, we suggest that the anterior medial superior frontal region is related to aspects of self-referential semantic processing and that the inferior parts of the anterior cingulate as well as the medial orbitofrontal cortex is related to affective processing, in this case pleasantness evaluation of the stimuli regardless of explicit semantic content. Finally, the left medial temporal lobe appears more actively engaged by elaborate meaning-based processing and the complex response pattern observed in different subregions of the MTL lends support to the suggestion that this region is functionally segregated.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Instructional design in mathematics for students with learning disabilities.

The low achievement level of students with learning disabilities has multiple causes. One is the mismatch between the students' learning characteristics and the design of instructional materials and practices. Design principles better suited to the characteristics of students with learning disabilities are described and illustrated for five areas: (a) big ideas; (b) conspicuous strategies; (c) efficient use of time; (d) clear, explicit instruction on strategies; and (e) appropriate practice and review. Wider application of these design principles, in instructional material and in actual teaching, could contribute to far higher achievement levels in mathematics for students with learning disabilities.

Achievement↗
PubMed2006

The phenomenology of endogenous orienting.

Can we build endogenous expectations about the locus of occurrence of a target without being able to describe them? Participants performed cue-target detection tasks with different proportions of valid and invalid trials, without being informed of these proportions, and demonstrated typical endogenous effects. About half were subsequently able to correctly describe the cue-target relationships ('verbalizers'). However, even non-verbalizer participants showed endogenous orienting with peripheral cues (Experiments 1 and 3), not depending solely on practice (Experiment 2). Explicit instructions did not bring about dramatic advantages in performance (Experiment 4). With central symbolic cues, only verbalizers showed reliable endogenous effects (Experiment 5). We concluded that endogenous orienting with peripheral cues can occur independently of participants developing explicit hypotheses about the cue-target relationships.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Movement preparation and working memory: a behavioural dissociation.

We can cross temporal sensorimotor contingencies by remembering sensory events or by anticipating motor responses. Here we tested the hypothesis that sensory and motor representations can be accessed according to different temporal dynamics. We predicted that the manipulation of movement representations would lead to a performance independent from the length of a delay interposed between sensory instructions and behavioural responses. Conversely, we expected a delay-dependent performance whenever temporary storage of sensory information was necessary to solve the task. We have measured reaction times and error rate in subjects performing a delayed non-matching to sample task. Task contingencies rather than explicit instructions ensured that either sensory or motor representations were used to cross the delay period on each trial. We tested our hypothesis by manipulating the length of the delays between stimulus presentation and behavioural response. We found that carrying sensory material over temporal gaps affects performance as a non-linear function of time, whereas movement representations remain robust over a wide range of delays. This novel behavioural paradigm might prove effective in dissociating the neural bases of preparatory and mnestic processes in normal human subjects, as well as their disorders in neurological patients.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Striking a chord with amnesic patients: evidence that song facilitates memory.

There have been several reports in the literature, mainly anecdotal, of amnesic patients demonstrating an ability to learn and remember song. Yet there has been little systematic investigation of this phenomenon. In this paper we report findings from three experiments investigating memory for song in two amnesic patients, Joan and Nellie. In the first study we explored recognition memory for various elements of song (i.e. lyrics, melody, lyrics and melody combined) and found that amnesic patients were better than chance at distinguishing studied from novel materials when given explicit instructions. In experiment 2, the ability to generate lyrics and melody was explored in one patient. Although this patient could only generate melodies, her performance in this modality was equivalent to that of matched controls. Memory for the semantic content of song was investigated in a final study using explicit testing conditions. The results showed that both patients were significantly better than chance at identifying correct responses, indicating that they acquired and retained knowledge of the general content of studied songs. These findings not only highlight the special nature of song in facilitating memory in amnesic patients, but given the level of accuracy in memory performance observed, suggest an alternative direction in rehabilitation.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Motor imagery during hypnotic arm paralysis in high and low hypnotizable subjects.

Previous research suggests that conversion disordered patients with hand/arm paralysis exhibit slowed reaction times for mental hand-rotation tasks that correspond to their affected arm when the tasks are explicitly instructed and not when they are implicitly cued. Because of the many similarities between hypnotic phenomena and conversion symptoms, the authors tested whether similar motor imagery impairment would occur among normal high hypnotizable subjects when paralysis is suggested. Nine high and 8 low hypnotizable subjects were administered an implicit and an explicit mental hand-rotation task during hypnotically suggested paralysis of the right arm. On the implicit task, there were no significant reaction time (RT) differences between highs and lows. On the explicit task, only highs showed a significantly larger RT increase per degree of rotation with the paralyzed arm, compared to the normal arm. These preliminary findings suggest that the motor imagery impairment observed in conversion paralysis can be induced in highs using hypnosis.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Improving psychiatric interview skills of established GPs: evaluation of a group training course in Italy.

BACKGROUND: A number of studies have shown that the communication style of GPs has a significant impact on their ability to recognize and manage psychiatric disorders. Italian training programmes do exist, but none have been evaluated for effectiveness. METHODS: Nine established GPs participated in a training programme consisting of twelve 3-h education sessions. Each session consisted of group discussion of videotaped patient interviews selected by GPs. Case discussion followed Lesser's "problem-based approach" criteria. Efficacy of training was assessed by measuring the pre-post change in accuracy in detecting psychiatric illness and changes in the interview skills of the GPs. RESULTS: Accuracy in detection of psychiatric illness increased significantly after training. Changes were seen in the interview style after training, such as use of open-ended questions and appropriate counselling in relation to problems presented by the patient. Physicians also improved their management skills by using a more negotiatory style and providing patients with supportive feedback. The way in which physicians gave advice and information to the patients improved significantly despite the fact that GPs were not instructed about how to give information to their patients. CONCLUSIONS: Group training in problem-based interviewing utilizing video feedback is a robust, culturally transferrable model for improving the skills of established physicians. Our results suggest that training produces indirect effects that are the result of the teaching method rather than of explicit instructions. Further research is required to assess how to optimize the effect of educational interventions to ensure sustainability and maximal impact on measurable outcomes of care.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Perceptions and knowledge of preservice and inservice teachers about early literacy instruction.

A major conclusion from the last decade of research on children with poor reading performance is that early, systematic instruction in phonological awareness and letter-sound correspondences improves early reading and spelling skills and results in a reduction of the number of students who are reading below grade level. To teach reading to at-risk students and students with learning disabilities, teachers need to have positive perceptions regarding the role of systematic, explicit instruction, as well as knowledge of English language structure. The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions and knowledge of general educators at two professional levels toward early literacy instruction for students at risk for reading failure. Unfortunately, our findings are similar to those obtained by Moats in 1994: Many general education teachers, at both preservice and inservice levels, are not prepared adequately for this challenging task.

Adult↗
PubMed1987

The fundamental rule: a study of current usage.

Members of the editorial boards of the Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, Psychoanalytic Quarterly, and Psychoanalytic Inquiry, plus selected analysts from Canada, France, and England, were asked how they presented the fundamental rule to their analysands and what considerations led to their choice of initial guidelines. Forty-nine of eight-three analysts responded to the survey. The respondents described diversity in phrasing of the fundamental rule, the time in analysis when the guidelines are given, and the reasons for the practice they follow. The method each chose appears to reflect the differing conceptions analysts have of the analytic process. Two major trends emerged: either our respondents emphasized delineating a work or functional framework or contract, or they emphasized establishing an attitude or spirit of cooperation, mutuality and work sharing. In each group respondents differed as to whether they favored minimal or more lengthy instructions. They also differed as to whether they followed a consistent approach or one tailored to the needs of the individual analysand. A source of tension lay in an inclination either to remain in the tradition set by Freud or to experiment with different phrasings and timings. The authors give their reasons for choosing to give explicit instructions, requesting associational material beyond thoughts and feelings, and describing resistance as inevitable and a potential source of insight.

Communication↗
PubMed1999

Movement-related potentials in Parkinson's disease: external cues and attentional strategies.

Hypokinetic movement can be greatly improved in Parkinson's disease patients by the provision of external cues to guide movement. It has recently been reported, however, that movement performance in parkinsonian patients can be similarly improved in the absence of external cues by using attentional strategies, whereby patients are instructed to consciously attend to particular aspects of the movement which would normally be controlled automatically. To study the neurophysiological basis of such improvements in performance associated with the use of attentional strategies, movement-related cortical potentials were examined in Parkinson's disease and control subjects using a reaction time paradigm. One group of subjects were explicitly instructed to concentrate on internally timed responses to anticipate the presentation of a predictably timed go signal. Other subjects were given no such instruction regarding attentional strategies. Early-stage premovement activity of movement-related potentials was significantly increased in amplitude and reaction times were significantly faster for Parkinson's disease subjects when instructed to direct their attention toward internally generating responses rather than relying on external cues. It is therefore suggested that the use of attentional strategies may allow movement to be mediated by less automatic and more conscious attentional motor control processes which may be less impaired by basal ganglia dysfunction, and thereby improve movement performance in Parkinson's disease.

Aged↗
PubMed1998

Effortful processing is a requirement for nicotine-induced improvements in memory.

We report two studies examining the effects of nicotine on memory in minimally deprived smokers. In experiment 1, semantically related words were recalled significantly better than unrelated words following nicotine, even when volunteers were explicitly instructed to target the unrelated word set for recall. Experiment 2 examined the effect of nicotine on two different types of lexical association: association by joint category membership (semantically related items), and association by derived meaning ("encapsulated" word pairs). Nicotine-induced improvements in recall were observed only for category associates and not for encapsulated word pairs. This implies that explicit, effortful processing of material in the presence of nicotine is necessary for improved recall performance to be observed.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Automatic activation of positive but not negative attitudes after traumatic brain injury.

This study investigated social judgment problems of an individual (AM) with bilateral frontal and temporal lobe damage including damage to the amygdala. We hypothesized that AM could automatically process positive, but not negative evaluative information and could process both types of evaluative information using controlled processing. In Phase 1 of Experiment 1 AM and controls were shown a series of words one at a time and were required to make good/bad judgments as quickly as possible. Results showed that AM was more likely than controls to rate words as good, and was significantly slower to make good/bad judgments of negatively, but not positively, evaluated words. In Phase 2 AM was shown a prime (positive or negative) then target (positive or negative) and instructed to evaluate whether the target word was good or bad. Results showed that AM responded more quickly when prime and target were both positive, but not when prime and target were both negative, whereas controls showed both types of priming. Experiment 2 determined whether AM's impaired processing of negative evaluative information could be abolished under controlled processing. AM was explicitly instructed to generate positive and negative connotations of a series of single words and given essentially unlimited time. Under these conditions, AM and controls did not differ significantly in their ability to generate positive versus negative connotations of words. In Experiment 3 AM and controls both showed normal semantic priming effects. The results are interpreted within the component process model of memory.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Putting struggling readers on the PHAST track: a program to integrate phonological and strategy-based remedial reading instruction and maximize outcomes.

PHAST (for Phonological and Strategy Training) is a research-based remedial reading program that attempts to capitalize upon current research on reading disabilities and their remediation. The focus of the program is on the primary obstacles to word identification learning and independent decoding that most disabled readers face and the steps necessary to help these children achieve independent reading skills. A framework of phonologically based remediation was used as a foundation upon which a set of flexible and effective word identification strategies were scaffolded in an integrated developmental sequence. The program uses a combination of direct instruction and dialogue-based metacognitive training, with the pedagogical emphasis shifting from an initial direct instruction, remedial focus to increasingly metacognitive-strategy-based methods. A continuum of intervention over 70 hours provides both (a) remediation of the basic phonological awareness and letter-sound-learning deficits of disabled readers and (b) specific training of five word identification strategies that offer different approaches to the decoding of unfamiliar words and exposure to different levels of subsyllabic segmentation. Explicit instruction in the application and monitoring of multiple word identification strategies and their application to text-reading activities continues throughout the PHAST Program. PHAST training provides the disabled reader with the opportunity to become a flexible reader who approaches new words in or out of context with multiple strategies and has the ability to evaluate the success of their application. The PHAST Program was developed following the controlled evaluation of its components in laboratory classroom settings and recent positive results from their sequential combination. PHAST represents a new integrated approach to programming in this area using instructional components that have already demonstrated their efficacy with children with severe reading disabilities.

Child↗
PubMed2003

Explicit and implicit processes in multicue judgment.

In two experiments, a multicue probability learning task was used to train participants in relating judgments to a criterion, on the basis of several cues that could or could not be relevant. The outcome feedback had 25% added noise to simulate real-world experience-based learning. Judgmental strategies acquired were measured by individual multiple linear regression analyses of a test phase (with no feedback) and were compared with self-ratings of cue relevance. In a third experiment, participants were instructed explicitly on cue relevance, with no training phase. The pattern of results suggested that both implicit and explicit cognitive processes influenced judgments and that they may have been sensitive to different task manipulations in the learning phase. On more complex tasks, despite weak explicit learning, explicit processes continued to influence judgments, producing a decrement in performance. These findings explain why studies of expert judgment often show only moderate levels of self-insight, since people have only partial access to the processes determining their judgments.

Cognition↗