Effects of maternal age, education, and employment status on the self-esteem of the child.
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Adolescent↗
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Employment status of recent recipients of the doctorate.
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Agriculture↗
The impact of psychosocial features of employment status on emotional distress in chronic pain and healthy comparison samples.
This study examined the extent to which measures of psychosocial features of employment status predict emotional distress in chronic pain (n = 83) and healthy comparison (n = 88) samples. Participants completed measures of emotional distress, pain severity, psychosocial features of employment status, and demographic data. After controlling for length of current unemployment, number of pain sites, and level of current pain severity, psychosocial measures (structured and purposeful time use, perceived financial security, skill use, social support form formal sources) were significant predictors of emotional distress in the chronic pain sample. Similar results were obtained for the healthy comparison sample. Structured and purposeful time use emerged as the most significant individual predictor of emotional distress for both samples. Findings are discussed in terms of their potential implications for treating chronic pain patients and the need to develop multidimensional measures that assess features of employment status within chronic pain samples.
Adult↗
Women, employment status, and hypertension: cross-sectional and prospective findings from the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study.
PURPOSE: This study examined the cross-sectional and prospective associations between employment status and hypertension among middle-aged, African-American (AA) and European-American (EA) women participating in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. METHODS: Employed women and homemakers from the baseline examination (1987-89) were included in the cross-sectional study (n = 7351). Associations between employment and the incidence of hypertension ascertained at visit 2 (1990-92) were determined among those who at baseline, had low-normal blood pressure (not hypertensive and systolic blood pressure (SBP) < or = 120 mm Hg systolic and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) < or =80 mm Hg (n = 3194). Logistic regression analysis was used to examine the association between employment status and hypertension by ethnicity, taking into account covariates. RESULTS: At baseline, employed women were less likely to be hypertensive (SBP > or =140 mm Hg or DBP > or =90 mm Hg or current use of antihypertensive drugs) than were homemakers (prevalence odds ratio) (POR) = 0.70; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.62-0.79), controlling for age, body mass index, and education. Among the subgroup who had low-normal blood pressure at baseline, employed women were less likely to develop hypertension during the three-year time period than were homemakers (odds ratio (OR) = 0.68; 95% CI = 0.44-1.05). The inverse association was stronger among AA (RR = 0.37; 95% CI = 0.16-0.88) than EA (OR = 0.83; 95% CI = 0.50-1.38) women. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that the inverse association between hypertension and employment status is not due to a healthy worker effect, and that employment may confer protection against incident hypertension in women.
Black or African American↗
Relationship of skin ulcers and physical deformity with employment status and compliance with health promotion in leprosy.
OBJECTIVE: To determine if recurrence of ulcers and physical deformity in leprosy is associated with employment status and compliance with health promotion advice. METHODS: Between April-August 1992, a cohort of 55 consecutive leprosy patients admitted with skin ulcers were studied for ulcer recurrence, physical deformity (taking into account neuromuscular and skeletal damage), employment status, compliance with health promotion advice and knowledge of the disease. RESULTS: High grade physical deformity was present in 34/55 (62%) patients while recurrent ulceration occurred in 40/55 (75%) patients. With regard to employment status, the odds of high grade physical deformity were significantly higher for street traders and unemployed compared to semiskilled and skilled workers (odds ratio 4.2, 95% confidence interval 1.01-19.8, p = 0.03). There was a trend of higher odds of recurrence of ulcers for street traders and unemployed compared to semiskilled and skilled workers (odds ratio 2.3, 95% confidence interval 0.5-9.4, p = 0.2). With regard to health promotion, there was poor compliance with advice about protective footwear and care of insensitive extremities. Level of knowledge about the disease and its prevention was also inadequate. CONCLUSION: Physical deformity was associated with lack of reasonable employment among leprosy patients. There was poor compliance with preventative advice. Health promotion strategies should be directed toward targeted health education and prevention of physical deformities.
Adult↗
Cognitive beliefs following severe traumatic brain injury: association with post-injury employment status.
In this exploratory study, the cognitive beliefs of 19 severely traumatically brain-injured (TBI) patients were assessed to determine their association with post-injury employment status (that is, full-time, part-time or unemployed). Cognitive measures included the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control (MHLC) scale, the Revised Internal-External Scale (RIES) and the Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS). Patients who did not return to their pre-injury level of employment (n = 10) were found to have lower MHLC Internal, higher RIES Powerful Others locus of control beliefs, and higher BHS scores as compared with a group of patients who returned to their pre-injury employment status (n = 9). In addition, longer lengths of post-traumatic amnesia, longer hospital stays and lower-prestige occupations post-injury were associated with poorer employment status. No differences were present between the groups in age, years of education, Glasgow Coma Scale on admission, length of coma, months post-injury, or pre-injury occupation. These results suggest that cognitive beliefs are a potential target for further research in TBI outcome.
Adult↗
A case-control study of employment status and mortality in a cohort of Australian youth.
Recent studies have demonstrated a link in young populations between unemployment and ill health. The purpose of this study is to correlate mortality with employment status in two cohorts of young Australian males, aged 17-25 years, from 1984 to 1988. Two youth cohorts consisting of an initially unemployed sample (n = 1424 males) and a population sample (n = 4573 males), were surveyed annually throughout the study period. Those lost to follow-up during the survey period were matched with death registries across Australia. Employment status was determined from weekly diaries and death certificates and was designated as: employed or student; unemployed; not in the work force (excluding students). Conditional logistic regression, using age- and cohort- matched cases (deaths) and controls (alive), was used to estimate the odds ratio (OR) of dying with regard to employment status, taking into account potential confounders such as ethnicity, aboriginality, educational attainment, pre-existing health problems, socio-economic status of parents, and other factors. Twenty three male survey respondents were positively matched to death registry records. Compared to those employed or students (referent group), significantly elevated ORs were found to be associated with neither being in the workforce nor a student for all cause, external cause, and external cause mortality other than suicide. Odds ratios were adjusted for age, survey cohort, ethnicity, pre-existing physical and mental health status, education level, and socio-economic status of parent(s). A statistically significant increasing linear trend in odds ratios of male mortality for most cause groups was found across the employment categories, from those employed or student (lowest ORs), through those unemployed, to those not in the workforce (highest ORs). Suicide was higher, but not statistically significantly, in those unemployed or not in the workforce. Suicide also was associated, though not significantly, with the respondent not living with their parents when they were 14 years of age. No association was found between mortality and past unemployment experience, as measured by length of time spent unemployed, or the number of spells of unemployment experienced during the survey. The results of this study underscore the elevated risk to survival in young males as a consequence of being neither employed nor a student.
Adolescent↗
Neurocognitive functioning is associated with employment status: a quantitative review.
Neurocognitive assessment is frequently used as a basis for making determinations regarding a person's ability to work; yet, to our knowledge, a review of the association between neurocognition and employment status has not been conducted. For this review, we utilized meta-analysis to quantify objectively the association between eight neurocognitive domains and employment status. The meta-analysis revealed that performance in each domain was significantly associated with employment status, and that the associations were greatest for the following domains: intellectual functioning, executive functioning, and memory. These findings support the ecological validity of neurocognitive assessment.
Attention↗
Social participation and employment status after kidney transplantation: a systematic review.
OBJECTIVE: To summarize and assess literature regarding social participation of recipients after successful kidney transplantation. METHODS: A systematic review including a literature search in Medline (1980-2003) and five other databases, and assessment of methodological quality of selected studies by two reviewers applying a checklist of twelve criteria. RESULTS: Seventeen studies out of 1443 identified references were selected. Quality scores for internal validity ranged from 0% to 50% (median 20%). Employment was the most used indicator of social participation and two studies briefly reported on vacation and recreation. Employment rate ranged from 18% to 82%, however differences in defining categories of employment or lack of description were present. Study populations were heterogeneous with regard to demographic and clinical characteristics. Three studies identified pre-transplant employment status as predictor of post-transplant employment. Other potential risk factors were not consistent across studies. CONCLUSION: Measurement of social participation focuses mainly on employment status. Quality assessment revealed shortcomings in reporting and validity of studies, whereby valid conclusions regarding the degree of social participation after kidney transplantation cannot be drawn. Future research should supplement the focus on employment status by examining other aspects of social participation as well as potential risk factors.
Employment↗
The importance of employment status in occupational cohort mortality studies.
Person-years at risk in occupational cohort mortality studies may be defined as "active" (when a person is working) or "inactive" (after a person has left employment at the plant under study). To investigate the effects of employment status (active/inactive) both across studies and within them, we have analyzed ten large cohort studies conducted by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health in which no occupational risk had been observed. These ten data sets included 89,376 workers, 1,984,505 person-years, and 18,840 deaths. In these ten studies, the SMR for all causes was positively correlated with the percentage of inactive person-years in the study (r = 0.57, p = 0.08). Considering only inactive person-years, the all-causes SMR was 1.12 (approximately 1.25 before age 65, dropping to 1.00 after age 65). Stratification of inactive person-years by time-since-last-employment showed markedly increased mortality during the first year following employment. The all-causes SMR during active person-years was 0.40 and was fairly constant across age categories. With active and inactive person-years combined, a strong negative trend in SMRs with duration of employment was observed for all causes and for heart disease. These trends were not apparent when person-years were stratified by employment status. These results indicate that investigators should evaluate the effects of employment status when comparing SMRs between multiple cohorts or when interpreting trends in rate ratios within cohorts.
Cohort Studies↗
Women, family demands and health: the importance of employment status and socio-economic position.
Although it is generally assumed that women engaged in paid work have better health than full-time homemakers, little is known about the situation in Southern European countries like Spain or about differences in the impact of family demands by employment status or the potential interaction with educational level. The objectives of this study are to analyse whether inequalities in health exist among housewives and employed women, and to assess whether the relationship between family demands and health differs by employment status. Additionally, for both objectives we examine the potential different patterns by educational level. The data have been taken from the 1994 Catalonian Health Survey (Spain). The sample was drawn from all women aged 25-64 years who were employed or full-time homemakers and married or cohabiting. Four health indicators (self-perceived health status, limiting long-standing illness, chronic conditions and mental health) and two health related behaviours (hours of sleeping and leisure-time physical activity) were analysed. Family demands were measured through household size, living with children under 15 and living with elderly. Overall, female workers had a better health status than housewives, although this pattern was more consistent for women of low educational level. Conversely, the health related behaviours analysed were less favourable for workers, mainly for those of low educational level. Among workers of low educational level, family demands showed a negative effect in most health indicators and health related behaviours, but had little or no negative association at all in workers of high educational level or in full-time homemakers. Moreover, among women of low educational level, both workers and housewives, living with elderly had showed a negative association with poor health status and health related behaviours. These results emphasise the need of considering the interaction between family demands, employment status and educational level in analysing the impact of family demands on women's health as well as in designing family policies and programmes of women's health promotion.
Adult↗
Educational needs and employment status of Scottish dental hygienists.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: To investigate the educational needs and employment status of registered dental hygienists in Scotland. SUBJECTS: Three hundred and eighty one registered dental hygienists with postal addresses in Scotland. DESIGN: Structured questionnaire. RESULTS: A 76% response rate was achieved following two mailings. Of the respondents, 43% were in full-time employment albeit in more than one setting, mostly in the 'central belt' of Scotland. It was reported that 41% were employed in general dental practice with both NHS and private lists and 39% worked in a purely private setting. The introduction of extended clinical duties had been well received and 59% of subjects were interested in additional training in dental therapy, should this become available. Absence of funding for CPD was raised repeatedly, with only 41% reporting a degree of financial assistance. Greater accessibility to continuing education via distance learning, particularly in remote and rural settings, was requested by 73% of hygienists. CONCLUSIONS: This study identifies a number of issues in relation to this increasingly important group of healthcare professionals, which will inform the providers of oral healthcare. Although hygienists' involvement in CPD was commendable, results indicated that despite commitment to their profession, respondents did not always feel respected in terms of their employment status or support for continuing professional development.
Dental Hygienists↗
The transplant trap: the impact of health policy on employment status following renal transplantation.
This study examined the relationship between concern for health insurance coverage and employment status following renal transplantation. The sample consisted of 293 individuals who underwent renal transplantation at The Ohio State University Medical Center. The study found fewer individuals reported employment during the past year (58%) than indicated they were able to work (72%). Although 72% of the sample indicated the physical ability to work 41% reported receiving a monthly disability check. Regression analysis revealed that receipt of a monthly disability check and employment status one day prior to transplant were the two most significant predictor variables for employment activity during the year prior to participation in this study. Intervention that is coordinated on a psychosocial level from the time of diagnosis of ESRD throughout the post-transplant period is critical to supporting individuals in pursuing their goals. Research findings should be utilized to advise policy-makers and advocate for system changes that support employment for individuals with ESRD.
Adolescent↗
Perceived race-based discrimination, employment status, and job stress in a national sample of black women: implications for health outcomes.
Previous research has not systematically examined the relationship of perceived race-based discriminations to labor force participation or job related stresses-problems experienced by Black women. The present study investigated the relative contributions of perceived race-based discriminations and sociodemographic characteristics to employment status and job stress in a national probability sample (the National Survey of Black Americans; J. S. Jackson, 1991) of Black women in the United States. Logit and polychotomous logistic regression analyses revealed that Black women's current employment status was best explained by sociodemographic measures. In contrast, the combination of perceived discrimination and sociodemographics differentially affects patterns of employment status and perceived job stress in the work environment of Black women. Implications of these findings for the health of African American women are discussed.
Adult↗
Association of pain with employment status and satisfaction among amputees in Japan.
OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationship between residual and phantom limb pain and working life among persons with limb amputation. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study in which amputee patients completed a mailed questionnaire about their residual limb and phantom limb pain, employment status, and satisfaction with working life. SETTING: Department of rehabilitation medicine of a major hospital in Japan. PARTICIPANTS: All participants were registered at the industrial rehabilitation center of a general hospital in Japan. Responses were received from 101 of the 147 patients (response rate, 68.7%) who were sent the questionnaire. INTERVENTION: An amputation pain and employment status survey that included a standardized pain measure. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: A self-report questionnaire, with 1 part concerning employment status and satisfaction with working life, and the other regarding amputation-related pain, which the participant described according to the Chronic Pain Grade (CPG). RESULTS: We found (1) no statistically significant association between types of pain and the return to work rate, (2) no statistically significant association between the pain severity as graded by the CPG and return to work rate, and (3) satisfaction with working life was significantly related to the CPG categories. CONCLUSION: The severity of pain does not appear to be associated with return to work among limb amputees. However, it is associated with satisfaction with working life. Appropriate treatment of pain may therefore improve work-related satisfaction.
Aged↗
Changes in employment status in end-stage renal disease patients during their first year of dialysis.
OBJECTIVE: To assess employment status in new end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients at the start of dialysis and after 1 year, and to determine whether demographic and clinical variables and physical and psychosocial functioning at the start of dialysis are risk factors for loss of employment after 1 year of dialysis. DESIGN: Prospective follow-up study in which 38 of 48 Dutch dialysis centers participate. PATIENTS: 659 patients who had started on dialysis and who were between 18 and 65 years old were included. Patients were re-examined after 12 months. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Demographic data, physical and psychosocial functioning with the Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36), and data on employment status were obtained using questionnaires. Nephrologists provided the clinical data. RESULTS: At the start of dialysis, 35% of patients were employed, in contrast to 61% of the general Dutch population. Within 1 year, the proportion of employed patients decreased from 31% to 25% of hemodialysis patients, and from 48% to 40% of peritoneal dialysis patients. In patients who were working at the start of dialysis, independent risk factors for loss of work within 1 year were impaired physical and psychosocial functioning [odds ratio physical: 3.4, 95% confidence interval (% CI), 1.0-11.2; odds ratio psychosocial: 4.2, 95% CI, 1.2-14.2]. CONCLUSIONS: As the percentage of employed patients at the start of dialysis is about half the expected percentage, loss of work is an important issue in both predialysis and dialysis patients. Improvements in physical and psychosocial functioning are potentially preventive of loss of work in patients who are employed when they start dialysis.
Adolescent↗
Depressive symptoms and employment status among Belgian adolescents.
The association of employment status and depressive symptoms was assessed by means of the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression (CES-D) scale in a population of 898 male and female subjects aged 16 to 21. The unemployed subjects (N = 300) scored significantly higher on depressive symptoms than did the students (N = 300) or the employed workers (N = 298) even when gender was controlled. Although the quantity of depressive symptoms differed, the nature of the symptoms experienced was similar in the three groups. Affective symptoms were more common than symptoms in somatic or interpersonal areas, suggesting that in adolescence and young adulthood there is a high degree of affective disturbance. We conclude that primary unemployment is associated with a substantial degree of depressive morbidity.
Adolescent↗
Transitions of employment status among suicide attempters during a severe economic recession.
Previous studies have shown a positive association between unemployment and attempted suicide. This study investigated transitions of employment status among suicide attempters during the severe economic recession. The main research question was whether inequality in the labour market also prevails among as selected a population as suicide attempters. The material consisted of 2495 persons who attempted suicide during 1989-1994 in Helsinki, Finland. Logistic regression analysis and survival analysis were used. Unemployment rates among suicide attempters were higher than in the general population, male rates being higher than female rates throughout the recession. There were significant changes in the employment status of the entire attempted suicide population from 1989 to 1994, especially in terms of the transition from employment to unemployment. Gender, age and education level predicted exit from the labour market. Among suicide attempters young middle-aged men with low education had the highest risk of unemployment.
Adolescent↗