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PubMed1979

Female transference and mate choice among Tana River red colobus.

Red colobus are one of a small number of primate species in which females have been reported to transfer between breeding groups more commonly than males. Several authors have hypothesised that in such species transference may serve to reduce the risk to females of producing offspring of lower fitness through inbreeding. The hypothesis offers no explanation of why females rather than males are responsible for outbreeding in these species, but remains plausible so long as male membership of breeding groups is relatively stable; for once members of one sex have evolved dispersal mechanisms reducing the risk of inbreeding, pressures on the other sex to do likewise will be lowered. Hence, if both sexes commonly migrate, the hypothesis is weakened. I describe here the membership dynamics of a group of Tana River red colobus, Colobus badius rufomitratus, which provide the first evidence of high rates of membership turnover by both sexes in primates, and speculate that the function of female transference in this case may be related to mate choice and the avoidance of infanticide.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

The formation of red colobus-diana monkey associations under predation pressure from chimpanzees.

It is generally assumed that most primates live in monospecific or polyspecific groups because group living provides protection against predation, but hard evidence is scarce. We tested the antipredation hypothesis with observational and experimental data on mixed-species groups of red colobus (Procolobus badius) and diana monkeys (Cercopithecus diana) in the Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. Red colobus, but not diana monkeys, are frequently killed by cooperatively hunting chimpanzees. Association rates peaked during the chimpanzees' hunting season, as a result of changes in the behaviour of the red colobus. In addition, playbacks of recordings of chimpanzee sounds induced the formation of new associations and extended the duration of existing associations. No such effects were observed in reaction to control experiments and playbacks of leopard recordings.

Animals↗
PubMed1983

Taxonomy and phylogeny of black-and-white colobus monkeys. Inferences from an analysis of loud call variation.

Field recordings of male loud calls (or roars) from each major form of black-and-white colobus monkey have been analyzed spectrographically, and features of tempo and pitch measured. Considered together with data on cranial dimensions, coat pattern, and geographical distribution, the results of this analysis suggest that there are five species of black-and-white colobus: Colobus angolensis, C. guereza, C. polykomos, C. satanas, and C. vellerosus. C. guereza and C. vellerosus may have differentiated most recently during a major arid event prior to the last Pleistocene glacial maximum; they have an identical low-pitched roar which we consider to be a shared, derived character. The other species, of which C. satanas has the most distinct roar, may belong to older lineages.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Gastrointestinal parasites of critically endangered primates endemic to Tana River, Kenya: Tana River red colobus (Procolobus rufomitratus) and crested mangabey (Cercocebus galeritus).

We conducted fecal egg counts of gastrointestinal parasites of 2 critically endangered primates endemic to the forest of Tana River, Kenya. We aimed to use the fecal egg counts as proxies to quantify the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites between the 2 primates. The Tana River red colobus (Procolobus rufomitratus) and crested mangabey (Cercocebus galeritus) are of similar body size, but their behavioral ecology is very different. We predicted that mangabeys would have a higher prevalence of parasites because they are mostly terrestrial omnivores, live in larger social groups, and therefore range widely. We detected 10 nematodes and 3 protozoans in mangabeys and 7 nematodes and 2 protozoans in colobus. We detected a higher number of different parasite species in individual mangabeys, and 4 of the 5 nematodes requiring intermediate hosts were found in mangabeys. The overall prevalence of parasites was higher for mangabeys, but this difference was not statistically significant. For colobus, we found a trend whereby the number of different parasite species in individual monkeys was higher in males and in lactating females. However, there was no difference in the prevalence of parasites between the sexes or between lactating and nonlactating females.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

Fatal herpesvirus infection in patas monkeys and a black and white colobus monkey.

Fatal herpesvirus infections were diagnosed in 3 patas monkeys and 1 black and white colobus monkey over a 4-week period. Herpesvirus was isolated from 1 patas monkey and from the black and white colobus monkey. Both isolates had growth characteristics similar to Herpesvirus hominis and Herpesvirus simiae. The isolate from the colobus monkey antigenically appeared to be H simiae or H simiae-like, whereas the isolate from the patas monkey could not be conclusively identified with the antisera used. All affected animals were housed in close proximity to rhesus monkeys, the carrier host of H simiae.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed2004

Mating system of an exceptional primate, the olive colobus (Procolobus verus).

In the olive colobus (Procolobus verus), many groups have multiple males and the males have large testes. This indicates that even though this species lives in small groups, single males do not monopolize the groups. We investigated the strategies employed by males to secure their mating success, and sought to determine whether the lack of male monopolization was a result of female mating strategies, as indicated by the exaggerated sexual swellings of the females. Four study groups were monitored for demographic changes, and group composition was determined in six additional groups in Taï National Park, Ivory Coast, between 1994 and 1999. Social behavior was recorded by scan and focal sampling in the study groups. The almost permanent association of olive colobus with Diana monkeys (Cercopithecus diana) in effect provided males a resource at which they could expect females to visit and sometimes even permanently join them, as well as protection from predators. As alternative strategies for obtaining females, one male took over the group of another male and one male immigrated into a bisexual group. Within bi-male groups, dominant males mated most frequently and males defended their groups during intergroup interactions. Lone females that visited groups or solitary males had a swelling more often than expected, and generally mated with the males they visited. Females had long receptive periods, several consecutive receptive cycles, and some overlap in receptive periods within groups. Females mated with extragroup males, and during infertile periods. We concluded that the males used the Diana monkeys for safety reasons and to obtain mating partners, and that female reproductive biology and behavior prevented the monopolization of groups of females by single males. Our data were inconclusive as regards the benefits to females of avoiding monopolization by males.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Male takeover in Colobus vellerosus at Boabeng-Fiema Monkey Sanctuary, central Ghana.

We describe a case of male takeover in the ursine black-and-white colobus (Colobus vellerosus). In April 2001, an all-male group attacked and eventually invaded our uni-male study group. Aggression increased following the takeover and the former resident male, severely wounded, became peripheral. The youngest immature received severe aggression from the new males but survived. The immature's mother intervened in most instances of this aggression. Eventually, the former resident male re-established relationships with some of the females and concurrently intervened to protect the immature. Defeated males that stay in their group can contribute to the protection of infants born during their tenure from infanticidal males. The females mated with the new males. Takeovers may be a means by which males acquire groups of females in C. vellerosus.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1983

A comparative study of basal metabolism and thermoregulation in a folivorous (Colobus guereza) and an omnivorous (Cercopithecus mitis) primate species.

1. Abdominal temperatures (Tab) and oxygen consumption (VO2) were measured in two males each of colobus and Sykes monkeys. 2. Tab in both species had the same range (36 38.5 C), but there were marked differences in the daily rhythms. 3. Low ambient temperatures (Ta) had little effect on Tab; at Ta = 33.5 35.5 C. however, Tab rose quickly to above 40 C. 4. The thermoneutral zone (TNZ) extended from about 5 to 28 C in both species. 5. In the colobus monkeys the basal metabolic rate (BMR) was considerably lower than in the Sykes monkeys: 85% vs 113% of the value predicted from body mass.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Artificially generated cultural variation between two groups of captive monkeys, Colobus guereza kikuyuensis.

The majority of studies of social learning in primates have tested subjects in isolation and investigated the effects of learning over very short periods of time. We aimed to test for social learning in two social groups of colobus monkeys, Colobus guereza kikuyuensis. Subjects were shown video footage of familiar monkeys either pushing or pulling a plastic flap to obtain a food reward, while they were given simultaneous access to the same apparatus. Action frequencies showed a significant difference between the two groups, with the pull group performing a higher proportion of pulls to pushes, compared with the push group. Copying persisted even in later sessions during which the demonstration footage was not being shown. We conclude that we successfully generated two contrasting behavioural traditions in these groups of monkeys. We do not know how long this contrast in behaviour would have persisted had we been able to continue testing for an even longer period of time, but further studies using similar designs and even longer test periods would have the power to confirm whether stable behavioural variation can be sustained between groups of monkeys, supported by social transmission.

Animals↗
PubMed1976

Contrasts in social structure among black-and-white colobus monkey groups.

Three types of Colobus guereza groups may be distinguished on the bases of size and composition, namely small one-male groups, large, one-male groups and multi-male groups. The social structure of each type of group is described in terms of the distribution of non-agonistic interactions, the frequency and distribution of agonistic behaviour and the organization of the roles of vigilance, territorial defence and leadership. A number of differences are found between the group types which appear to be related to the differences in group size and composition. It is suggested that these group types represent stages in the life-cycle of colobus groups, and that such an interpretation may help to resolve some of the conflicting reports in the literature.

Agonistic Behavior↗
PubMed1979

A new endogenous primate type C virus isolated from the Old World monkey Colobus polykomos.

A new, genetically transmitted retrovirus has been isolated from the Old World monkey Colobus polykomos. This virus, designated CPC-1, is readily transmitted to both feline and human cells in culture. Nucleic acid hybridization studies reveal that there are 50-70 copies of the CPC-1 genome in colobus cellular DNA. Related virogene sequences can be detected in the DNA of all other Old World monkeys, as well as in the DNA of at least one ape species, the chimpanzee, indicating that this virus has been genetically transmitted in primates for 30-40 million years. CPC-1 is partially related to the type C virus previously isolated from stumptail monkeys (MAC-1). These two viruses have nucleic acid sequence homology, antigenic crossreactivity in their major viral structural protein, and a very similar host range in vitro. CPC-1 and MAC-1 therefore belong to the same class of genetically transmitted primate type C viruses and, as such, represent the first example in primates of analogous endogenous retroviruses isolated from two distantly related species.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

Time budget of Tana river red colobus.

Data on the activity pattern of a group of red colobus monkeys (Colobus badius rufomitratus) living along the Tana river, Kenya, were collected during monthly 5-day observation periods between October 1973 and December 1974. The two most important activities were feeding and resting which occupy about one-third and one-half of daytime, respectively. These proportions vary considerably, however, according to age-sex class, time of day and month of year. Compared to a group studied at a rain-forest site in Uganda, the Tana animals spend substantially less time feeding and more time resting. Possible reasons for this difference are discussed.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1998

Primitive neuroectodermal tumor in a two-month-old black and white Colobus monkey.

A 2-month-old male black and white Colobus monkey (Colobus guereza kikuyuensis) was euthanatized because of progressive physical deterioration, rear limb paralysis, lymphadenopathy, and the presence of facial and retroperitoneal lumbar masses. At necropsy, soft white masses were present in and around lumbar vertebrae, the subcutis of the face, multiple lymph nodes, and the fourth ventricle of the brain. Histologic and immunohistochemical analysis of these masses revealed a primitive neoplasm with both neuronal and glial differentiation, consistent with a primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNET) with bipotential differentiation. The extracranial tumors were synaptophysin (SYN)-positive, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-negative, and neurofilament protein (NFP)-negative, while the intracranial tumor was SYN-positive, GFAP-positive, and NFP-negative.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Within-group vigilance in red colobus and redtail monkeys.

In theory, animals are expected to relax vigilance in the safety of large groups. Four controlled studies of primates have failed to detect relaxed vigilance as group size increases. The counter-intuitive behavior of primates might arise if another component of vigilance increases with group size, masking any decrease in outward, anti-predator vigilance. Surveillance of associates is a major component of primate vigilance and might be expected to increase with group size due to an increase in competitive interactions. The present analysis uses data on glances toward associates to determine if within-group surveillance is related to group size in wild red colobus and redtail monkeys of Uganda. Although males glance at associates more frequently during mating periods and females glance at associates more often when infants are young or out of contact, there was no evidence of a group-size effect on within-group surveillance. As with previous studies, primate vigilance patterns reflect reproductive strategies such as infant protection and mate defense. This study joins several others that indicate that primate vigilance is unresponsive to group size. New models that take into account association patterns below the level of the group may be needed.

Adaptation, Biological↗
PubMed2002

Variability of metapodials in primates with rudimentary digits: Ateles geoffroyi, Colobus guereza, and Perodicticus potto.

A tenet of evolutionary theory is that, within a species, phenotypic variability is inversely related to the intensity of stabilizing selection. A corollary is that a rudimentary or vestigial structure should be highly variable. This relationship between rudimentation and variability, however, may simply be part of a continuum, as several studies have shown that variability and size of a structure are inversely related. This study tests whether the first metacarpal (MC1) in Ateles geoffroyi and Colobus guereza and the second metacarpal (MC2) in Perodicticus potto are highly variable in their lengths relative to their other metapodials. The former two species have rudimentary thumbs, and the latter species has a rudimentary index finger. Fourteen other species of primates are included in the comparison. The results show that MC1 in A. geoffroyi and C. guereza and MC2 in P. potto are the relatively shortest first and second metapodials, respectively, in this sample of primates. However, an intraspecific analysis shows that neither MC1 in A. geoffroyi and C. guereza nor MC2 in P. potto is significantly more variable than the other metapodials. Nevertheless, an interspecific analysis shows that MC1 in A. geoffroyi and C. guereza is relatively the most variable among the first metapodials (i.e., MC1 and first metatarsal) in this study. MC2 in P. potto, however, is of relatively low variability compared with the other primates. These contrasting results are interpreted in terms of the developmental and evolutionary biology of digits.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2002

Scale issues in the study of primate foraging: red colobus of Kibale National Park.

Diet data have been used to address a number of theoretical issues. We often calculate the proportion of time spent eating different foods (e.g., fruits, leaves) to place species into dietary categories and contrast morphological or behavioral traits among categories. Yet we have little understanding of how flexible species can be in terms of the plant parts and species consumed. To address this issue, we analyzed data on the diets of red colobus monkeys (Procolobus badius) from Kibale National Park, Uganda, to evaluate temporal and spatial variability in the plant parts and species eaten. After considering observer differences and sampling issues, we evaluated how different a group's diet could be if samples were taken in different years. We found that the diet of the same groups showed significant, consistent changes over a 4-year period. For example, the time spent feeding on leaves increased from 56% in 1994 to 76% in 1998. The plant parts and species eaten by eight groups inhabiting different types of forest (e.g., pristine, logged, riverine) varied among groups. The largest interdemic difference was seen in the use of young leaves (38%). Dietary differences were also found between groups with overlapping home ranges (41-49% overlap). Different subspecies of Procolobus badius also varied in diet; however, this variation was often not of the magnitude documented within Kibale for the same population. The fact that diet can vary considerably over small spatial and short temporal scales within the same species raises the intriguing question as to what level of interspecific difference is biologically significant for addressing particular questions. We conclude that behavioral flexibility blurs our traditional stereotypic assessment of primates; a study of one group that occupies a specific habitat at one point in time may not adequately represent the species.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Articular structure and function in Hylobates, Colobus, and Papio.

It has been demonstrated in clinical and experimental studies that subarticular trabecular bone responds to mechanical loads transmitted across joints through changes in mass and structural organization. We investigated differences in mass, volume, and density of subarticular trabecular bone of the humeral and femoral head in Hylobates syndactylus, Colobus guereza, and Papio cynocephalus. Our hypothesis was that variations in trabecular properties between taxa may reflect differences in mechanical loading associated with different locomotor repertoires. A nondestructive method for measuring trabecular properties using optical luminance data measured from radiographs was developed. We also examined the relationship between internal trabecular properties and the external size and surface area of the humeral and femoral heads in these taxa. Our results suggest that internal and external articular structure are relatively independent of each other and may be adapted to different aspects of the mechanical environment. Differences in trabecular mass between taxa appear to correspond to differences in the magnitudes of mechanical loads borne by the joint, whereas articular volume and surface area are related primarily to differences in joint mobility. Because of the apparent physiological "de-coupling" of articular mass and volume, variations in articular density (mass/volume) are difficult to interpret in isolation. Comparisons of internal and external articular structure may provide new ways to reconstruct the locomotor/positional behavior of extinct taxa.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Functional implications of enamel thickness in the lower molars of red colobus (Procolobus badius) and Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata).

The purpose of this study is to determine whether teeth are likely to retain their functional efficiency throughout an individual's life time. This was done by comparing the enamel volume, the cross-sectional enamel area and the pattern of enamel distribution on unworn M(2)s of folivorous (Procolobus badius: red colobus; n=8) and frugivorous (Macaca fuscata: Japanese macaque; n=6) cercopithecids. The enamel volume of M. fuscata is significantly greater than that of P. badius. As the lower molars of colobines become worn, the dentine is exposed on the buccal cusps and narrow enamel rims are formed around the dentine exposures. The buccal enamel rims are especially well-developed and sharp, a pattern that has probably been selected for as being advantageous for shredding fibrous plant materials. The results of this study demonstrate that the enamel on the lingual side of the protoconid, where dentine exposure occurs first, is much thinner in P. badius than it is in M. fuscata. In addition, the dentine is exposed and thin enamel rims are formed faster in P. badius than in M. fuscata. Also, P. badius has significantly thinner and more uniform enamel distribution on the buccal wall of the crown and a higher protoconid. The buccal flare is well-developed in M. fuscata, but poorly developed in P. badius. It is tentatively suggested that the undeveloped flare and thinner enamel of P. badius combine to enable this species to maintain narrow rims, even after dental attrition, while the high cusps may be an adaptation for providing narrow enamel rims throughout life.

Adaptation, Physiological↗