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Galen was a brilliant anatomist and pioneer of experimental physiology. His many important discoveries exerted a profound influence on medicine during the next 1400 years. However, his wish to solve all the problems of health and disease led him to speculate and draw mistaken conclusions which were widely believed until after the Renaissance.
The domain of medical imaging is anatomy. Therefore, anatomic knowledge should be a rational basis for organizing and analyzing images. The goals of the Digital Anatomist Program at the University of Washington include the development of an anatomically based software framework for organizing, analyzing, visualizing and utilizing biomedical information. The framework is based on representations for both spatial and symbolic anatomic knowledge, and is being implemented in a distributed architecture in which multiple client programs on the Internet are used to update and access an expanding set of anatomical information resources. The development of this framework is driven by several practical applications, including symbolic anatomic reasoning, knowledge based image segmentation, anatomy information retrieval, and functional brain mapping. Since each of these areas involves many difficult image processing issues, our research strategy is an evolutionary one, in which applications are developed somewhat independently, and partial solutions are integrated in a piecemeal fashion, using the network as the substrate. This approach assumes that networks of interacting components can synergistically work together to solve problems larger than either could solve on its own. Each of the individual projects is described, along with evaluations that show that the individual components are solving the problems they were designed for, and are beginning to interact with each other in a synergistic manner. We argue that this synergy will increase, not only within our own group, but also among groups as the Internet matures, and that an anatomic knowledge base will be a useful means for fostering these interactions.
Andreas Vesalius was born in Brussels on December 31, 1514 from a long line of physicians. He died in Zante in 1564. He was a typical son of the Renaissance. In 1543, his two most important books were published: De Humani Corporis Fabrica, Libri Septum and the Epitome. The former was a book of over 700 pages with several illustrations, highly systematically composed and fully indexed. Andreas Vesalius was the first modern anatomist who based his anatomical descriptions on personal observation. The kidney was a fascinating organ to Vesalius, whose function, particularly regarding the production of urine, he did not fully grasp. He makes short work of the 'perforated membrane theory' which was the current conception of the origin of urine in the kidney. Andreas Vesalius broke with the established rigid and fabricated way of teaching anatomy, and introduced the modern concept of learning based on personal observations, using illustration combined with a critical spirit and sense of experiment.
Several years ago, the American Association of Anatomists (AAA) launched an innovative mini-meeting format as part of their annual meeting. The AAA continued this tradition by sponsoring a 2-day mini-symposium as a part of its meeting at FASEB Experimental Biology, 2006 in San Francisco, CA, USA. This year, the mini-symposium was focused on the promising and rapidly developing field of 'regenerative medicine'. The mini-symposium on 'regenerative medicine' included four separate but thematically integrated sessions: stem cells for regenerative medicine; biomimetic matrices for regenerative medicine; endothelial-mesenchymal transformation in cardiovascular regenerative medicine; and tissue engineering technologies for regenerative medicine. The goal of these sessions was to identify progress and highlight new trends and directions in the evolving field of regenerative medicine. It was an exciting 2-day mini-symposium that reviewed the differential potential of embryonic and adult stem cells, their role in tissue turnover and possible applications in tissue regeneration; identified important evolving basic science issues, such as the role of endothelial-mesenchymal transformation and stem cell recruitment in cardiovascular regenerative medicine; and, finally, clearly demonstrated how understanding basic scientific principles can be translated into novel cell therapeutics and tissue engineering modalities. The workshop also demonstrated the multidisciplinary (speakers included stem cell and developmental biologists, chemical engineers, tissue engineers, biophysicists, mathematicians and surgeons) and international (speakers represented US, Japan, Canada, Switzerland and Korea) character of ongoing efforts in the area of regenerative medicine and stem cell biology, impressive progress in this field, and confirmed the strong potential for clinical translation of emerging regenerative medicine technologies.
Prof Dr. Sinisa Radojevic was born in 1895 in Kragujevac. While still a boy, he participated in World War I and was awarded the Albanian Certificate of Service. He graduated from Grammar School and a School of Medicine and specialized Surgery in Bordeaux. He remained a Francophile his entire life, and published numerous scientific papers in France. He was a member of the French Academy of Medicine. After School of Medicine was founded in Belgrade, he returned to Serbia and began working at the Anatomy Institute of School of Medicine, Belgrade. At the time when School of Medicine was founded in Novi Sad, he took part in foundation of the Institute of Anatomy, holding the post of Institute Manager until he retired. With a huge enthusiasm, professor Radojevic had a leading role in organization of the Institute. He worked with and educated junior associates, who provided the Institute with extraordinary expert and scientific reputation. Professor Radojevic was an extraordinary figure, an exceptional anatomist and erudite, but primarily a warm and kind man of a true European orientation.
Anatomical spatial concepts are indispensable in educational and clinical discourse, yet a system for representing these concepts has not been proposed. Guided by explicit principles and definitions of the Digital Anatomist Foundational Model, we developed an ontology of spaces, surfaces, lines and points that are associated with anatomical structures. Ontologies for Anatomical Structure and Anatomical Spatial Entity were instantiated for the thorax, abdomen, pelvis and perineum. Representing the concepts in--part of--hierarchies as well, provided formative evaluation of the classification. We invite empirical evaluation of the Foundational Model through its use for educational and clinical applications.
A recent survey shows that a major impediment to more widespread use of computers in anatomy education is the inability to directly manipulate 3-D models, and to relate these to corresponding textual information. In the University of Washington Digital Anatomist Project we have developed a prototype Web-based scene generation program that combines the symbolic Foundational Model of Anatomy with 3-D models. A Web user can browse the Foundational Model (FM), then click to request that a 3-D scene be created of an object and its parts or branches. The scene is rendered by a graphics server, and a snapshot is sent to the Web client. The user can then manipulate the scene, adding new structures, deleting structures, rotating the scene, zooming, and saving the scene as a VRML file. Applications such as this, when fully realized with fast rendering and more anatomical content, have the potential to significantly change the way computers are used in anatomy education.
Fredrik Georg Gade (1855-1933) was born in Bergen as the eldest son of a merchant and politician. He graduated from the University of Oslo in 1880. After clinical residency and training in anatomy and pathology at the National Hospital in Oslo, he worked in several of the most outstanding medical research institutions in Continental Europe, including the institutes of Robert Koch and Carl Friedländer in Berlin, Carl Weigert in Frankfurt, the pathologists and anatomists Victor Cornil, Louis-Antoine Ranvier and Louis Charles Malassez in Paris. Gade was associate professor (prosector) of anatomy in Oslo from 1897 to 1906 and also the editor of the Norwegian Medical Journal (Norsk Magazin for Laegevidenskaben). He was also one of the pioneers of cancer statistics in Norway. In addition to his scientific publications, he wrote extensively on political and cultural issues. Struck by serious illness he donated most of his family fortune to establish an institute for pathology in his home town Bergen, which opened in 1912 under the name Dr. med. F.G. Gades Pathologiske institutt. It later became one of the pillars of the Medical Faculty when the University of Bergen was established in 1946 (now: The Gade Institute, University of Bergen).
The teaching of anatomy in England and Scotland from the 16th to the 19th centuries was carried out by the Companies of Barber Surgeons and also there were a number of private schools. The only sources of material for dissection and study were the gallows or the grave and the supply from the former was limited by law. Therefore the latter became the source of a saleable commodity, and so the profession of grave robbing became established. The taking of bodies was abhorrent to the populace, fights and riots would sometimes occur and public outrage was directed towards anatomists. The passing of the Anatomy Act of 1832 helped bring an end to the grisly business of snatching bodies, but the supply of material for study still remained a problem. In the 1920s there was a change in public attitude toward dissection which resulted in an increase in the donation of bodies.
Since a notice published in 1811 in the Biographie universelle of Michaud, it has been supposed that the famous "Mademoiselle Biheron" of the XVIIIth century, who made artificial anatomies and was especially admired by Diderot, had Marie Catherine as her Christian names. It was a mistake which would invalidate for almost two centuries all the researches on the biography of this anatomist and artist. No one even knew the date and the circumstances of her death. The author, having discovered her true names - Marie Marguerite -, realised many investigations on her and her family. He worked especially on notarian archives, both in Paris, where she was born, and in the north of the old Maine province (present Sarthe department), from which her father, who was a Parisian apothecary, originated. Also he recalls the essential part that this Marie Marguerite Biheron (1719-1795) played in the evolution of the ideas concerning the teaching and medical use of anatomical data. Her contribution in that field was one of those which prepared the important reforms which would take place at the end of the century, at the time of the Convention, conducting in particular to the development of modern surgery.
The Japanese anatomist Buntaro Adachi (1865-1945) has to be regarded as the pivotal figure of vascular anatomy of all times. His masterpiece, "Das Arteriensystem der Japaner" was published in 1928 as a result of over thirty years of research on hundreds of bodies, and it remains today a bibliographical reference that can't be ignored. However, Buntaro Adachi intended writing much more than an encyclopedia of vascular anatomy : he wanted to introduce a concept of racial anatomy, pointing out the anatomical specificities in Japanese people, probably in reaction against the Chinese and then Occidental influence on anatomical knowledge in Japan.
The lessons of veterinary anatomy, firstly it was called "Zootomie", began in Rumania in 1853 and took place at educational establishments for ambulances and at schools for human medicine. The first veterinary school of the country was opened at the 16th of May 1861. The academically trained anatomy began with Prof. Constantin Gavrilescu. The most famous representative of anatomy was Prof. Vasile Ghetie (1903-1990). His act of life positions him beside the great anatomists of the gone century Schmaltz, Barone and Grau.
Harry Sicher, MD, DSc (1889-1974), a world-renowned and highly respected head, neck and dental anatomist, received his MD from the University of Vienna Medical School in his native Austria in 1913. Studying under the famed Dr. Julius Tandler, Sicher received a broad and solid foundation in all aspects of anatomy. He clearly understood that anatomic structure was closely related to body function. After graduating from medical school, Dr. Sicher specialized in dentistry, where he worked in clinical practice, teaching and research. He remained associated with the University of Vienna until 1938, when Hitler's annexation of Austria forced Jewish intellectuals to flee from Europe. Sicher emigrated to Chicago in 1939 where he became a professor and chairman of the anatomy department at the Loyola Dental School until his retirement as professor emeritus in 1960. The extent of Harry Sicher's knowledge and scientific productivity was staggering. He studied and understood the complexities of many scientific disciplines, including anthropology, applied head, neck and oral anatomy, biology, bone metabolism, comparative anatomy, embryology, endocrinology, entomology, evolutionary biology, histology, occlusion, pathology and physiology. His collaborations with Drs. Balint J. Orban and Joseph P. Weinmann were especially productive. In the classroom, his teaching skills were legendary. As a roving lecturer, he spoke to dental, medical and specialty audiences worldwide for decades. He had the rare ability to make a description of the human body come vibrantly alive. Several of his books, Oral Anatomy (1949), Bone and Bones (1944) and Orban's Oral Histology and Embryology (1962, 1966, 1972) became authoritative textbooks for dentists throughout the world.
This paper describes a development cycle for the engineering of large knowledge bases: A graphical tool is used for editing and the content is transformed into a logic-based representation language. This representation is used to check the consistency of the knowledge base as well as to facilitate the reviewing process. Showing the usefulness of this approach, aspects of the Digital Anatomist Foundational Model will be transformed into a Description Logics representation. We introduce a special modeling technique to account for the representation of the complex part/whole relationships in the biomedical domain.
The Turkish Institute of Antropology was estabilished in 1925 as a unit of the Medical School of Istanbul University (Darülfünun), named the Antropology Research Center (Antropoloji Tetkikat Merkezi). It was a part of the medical faculty until 1932. After the university reform it was connected to the School of Science and in late 1935 it was transfered to the School of Languages History and Geography (Dil Tarih Coğrafya Fakültesi) in Ankara. The center started to publish "The Journal of Turkish Anthropology" with Dr. Nuretttin Ali Berkols researches in 1925. It was published in two languages, Turkish and French. The faculty members of the institute, Dr. Mouchet, Dr. Süreyya Ali and Dr. Ismail Hakki formed the editorial board of the journal. We see that from the first issue of the journal in 1925 until the special issue prepared for the XVIII. Anthropology and Prehistorical Archealogy Congress in 1939, Dr. Nurettin Ali Berkol and Dr. Mouchet were members of the administrative committee of the journal. In this article; we studied the contributions of the anatomists to the development of anthropology in Turkey.
A remarkable anatomical school existed in Algiers during the French colonial period from 1830 to 1962. From 1832 to 1836, in the first military hospital of Algiers, Lucien Jean Baptiste Baudens (1804-1857) already started lectures of anatomy. A School of Medicine was created in Algiers in 1857 and opened in 1859 ; it was transformed in a Faculty of Medicine in 1909. Five professors occupied the chair of anatomy from 1859 to 1962 : Dr Patin from 1859 to 1869, Paulin Trolard (1842-1910) from 1869 to 1910, Jean Amédée Weber (1877-1966) from 1908 to 1917, Emile Leblanc from 1918 to 1939, and René-Marcel de Ribet (1894-1967) from 1940 to 1962. A second chair devoted to medico-surgical anatomy and surgical technique was created in 1957 and occupied by René Bourgeon (1912-1996) from 1957 to 1962. Some of the major works of those anatomists are evoked.
The great anatomist Albert von Koelliker (1817-1905) from Würzburg played an essential role in the histology of nervous tissue and in the development of the neuron theory in particular. He was among the first to appreciate the silver chromate method for staining nerve cells developed by Camillo Golgi and to accept and confirm the results of the neurohistological investigations presented by Santiago Ramón y Cajal with a modified technique of the Golgi method. Koelliker gave his unstinted support to both scientists whom he introduced into the international scientific community of the late 19th century. Though in the controversy about the organization of the nervous tissue Koelliker supported Cajal's view of a neuronal organization in contrast to Golgi's idea of a reticular organization, he remained a close friend to both scientists and even went all out for a nomination of Golgi for the Nobel-Prize for Physiology or Medicine.
The authors report the experience in training clinical anatomists gained at the Chair of General Clinical Pathology (Pathoanatomy) in the Novokuznetsk Institute for Advanced Medical Training. Altogether 366 specialists in clinical pathology have been trained for the 10-year period (1976-1985). Problems of composing the curricula for the training cycles and their contents are discussed. The significance of such institutes for advanced training of those who specialize in pathoanatomy is emphasized.