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PubMed1982

The effect of powder aerosol compared to pressurized aerosol.

A comparison was performed between inhalation of salbutamol as a powder aerosol or as a pressurized aerosol. Seven intrinsic asthmatics, well-trained in inhalation technique, were studied in an open randomized crossover comparison of the two different modes of administration. Five doses were inhaled of salbutamol from the pressurized aerosol, 0.1-2.4 mg, and five doses as a powder aerosol from a Rotahaler, 0.2-4.8 mg. The FEV1 dose-response curves were almost identical indicating bronchodilating equipotency between the two modes of administration. A preliminary report is given of the effects on morning cortisol of inhalation of beclomethasone dipropionate as a powder aerosol or as a pressurized aerosol in 10 healthy volunteers trained in inhalation technique. Morning cortisol decreased to the same degree after both modes of administration and the decrease was dose-dependent when beclomethasone dipropionate was given in the doses 200 micrograms, 500 micrograms and 1000 micrograms q.i.d. Thus, in patients with a good inhalation technique the powder aerosol does not seem to be better than the pressurized aerosol. We think, however, that it could be offered as an alternative to patients with poor inhalation technique.

Aerosols↗
PubMed2006

The effect of aerosolized and intravenously administered clenbuterol and aerosolized fluticasone propionate on horses challenged with Aspergillus fumigatus antigen.

Beta-agonists have been shown to display anti-inflammatory properties in several experimental models. The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-inflammatory properties of clenbuterol (CB), administered either intravenously or by aerosol, in comparison with fluticasone propionate (FP) in recurrent airway obstruction (RAO)-susceptible horses. Eight horses, of which five were known to be susceptible to RAO, underwent an inhalation challenge with Aspergillus fumigatus (AF) antigen and were treated with CB intravenously, CB by aerosol, or FP by aerosol. Twenty-four hours after the challenge, bronchoalveolar lavage was performed, the total and differential cell counts were assessed, and cytokines were measured in isolated alveolar macrophages. After challenge with AF, RAO-susceptible horses showed an increase in total cell count, based on an increase in macrophages and lymphocytes, which was inhibited by treatment with intravenous CB, aerosolized CB and aerosolized FP. Neutrophil ratios were decreased when treated with aerosolized CB and FP. Expression of interleukin (IL)-1beta and IL -8 was significantly increased after AF challenge . Interleukin -1beta was significantly decreased following treatment with intravenous CB, aerosolized CB and aerosolized FP, whereas only FP decreased the expression of IL-8. These data suggest that the anti-inflammatory property of CB provide new opportunities in the therapeutic intervention of early inflammation in RAO.

Administration, Inhalation↗
PubMed2004

Cyclosporin A aerosol improves the anticancer effect of paclitaxel aerosol in mice.

The objective of this study was to assess the effect of cyclosporin A liposome aerosol on the anticancer activity of paclitaxel (PTX) liposome aerosol against renal cell carcinoma (Renca) pulmonary metastases in mice. Cyclosporin A (CsA) was administered as a liposome aerosol for one-half hour before starting one-half hour treatment with PTX liposome aerosol (CsA/PTX), and in a second groups of animals cyclosporin A liposome aerosol was given before PTX for one-half hour and also later by mixing a second dose of cyclosporin A aerosol with PTX aerosol and extending the treatment period to one hour (CsA/PTX + CsA). In one experiment, PTX and CsA/PTX aerosols were significantly more effective compared to untreated controls against renal cell cancer as measured by lung weights and tumor surface areas. CsA/PTX was significantly better that PTX alone as measured by lung weights and tumor area. In a second experiment, tumor areas of PTX and CsA/PTX treated mice were significantly reduced compared to untreated controls and CsA/PTX treated mice had significantly smaller tumor areas than PTX treated mice. In contrast, tumor numbers were not significantly fewer than controls in either therapeutic group. In a third experiment, tumor numbers and tumor areas were significantly fewer in mice treated with CsA/PTX and CsA/PTX + CsA compared to untreated controls. Mice treated with CsA/PTX + CsA had significantly fewer tumors and less tumor area than mice receiving CsA/PTX. While PTX treated mice were not different than untreated controls with respect to tumor numbers or tumor volumes, PTX treated mice had significantly greater tumor numbers and tumor areas than CsA/PTX and CsA/PTX + CsA treated mice. Co-administration of CsA with PTX demonstrated significant dose dependent anticancer effects against renal cell pulmonary metastases in mice. Toxicity manifested by weight loss was associated with the highest dose of CsA.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Acute hypersensitivity to aerosolized histamine induced by aerosolized ovalbumin in guinea pigs.

Acute airway hyperresponsiveness can be induced after exposure to aerosolized ovalbumin in sensitized guinea pigs. The purpose of the present studies was to determine if "pro-inflammatory agents" would potentiate and prolong antigen-induced pulmonary hyperresponsiveness to histamine in guinea pigs. Guinea pigs were sensitized to aerosolized ovalbumin by exposing them to a 3 min aerosol, generated ultrasonically from a 10% ovalbumin solution on day 0 and day 7. On day 13 the guinea pigs were exposed to a 3 min aerosol of deionized water or a pro-inflammatory agent (1 microgram/ml PAF, 1 mg/ml LPS, or 4% B. pertussis vaccine). Twenty-four hours later, on day 14, the conscious guinea pigs were challenged with a 3 min aerosolized ovalbumin exposure (under isoproterenol cover) and the individual guinea pig responsiveness to aerosolized histamine was determined 2 and 24 h later in an anesthetized modified Konzett-Rossler preparation. Under these experimental conditions, ovalbumin challenge to sensitized guinea pigs produced only an acute hyperresponsiveness (about a 3-10-fold shift) to aerosolized histamine, which lasted less than 24 h. The pro-inflammatory agents neither potentiated nor prolonged the duration of the hyperresponsiveness.

Aerosols↗
PubMed1998

The efficacy of a low-dose, monodisperse parasympathicolytic aerosol compared with a standard aerosol from a metered-dose inhaler.

OBJECTIVE: In previous experiments we showed that monodisperse bronchodilator aerosols with a median mass aerodynamic diameter of 2.8 microm induced stronger bronchodilatations than larger aerosols and that the dilatations were clinically relevant at low doses. To discover whether the bronchodilator effects of these low-dose monodisperse aerosols differed from those of standard dosages delivered by metered-dose inhalers, we carried out a comparative trial. METHODS: Ten stable outpatients with a mean forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) of 58.1% of the predicted value inhaled a placebo aerosol, 8 microg of a 2.8-microm monodisperse ipratropium bromide aerosol and 40 microg from a metered-dose inhaler plus spacer; lung-function measurements followed. Data were analysed with repeated measurements analysis of variance (ANOVA). RESULTS: Greater improvements than with placebo were evident for the forced vital capacity (FVC), the FEV1, the specific airway conductance (sGaw), the peak flow (PEF) and the maximum expiratory flow at 75% of the forced vital capacity (MEF75). In these cases, the low-dose 2.8-microm aerosol proved to be equivalent to the higher-dose metered-dose inhaler. CONCLUSION: By changing the polydisperse characteristic of inhaled aerosols to a monodisperse pattern, the dose of the drug administered can be reduced without loss of efficacy.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Stability and characterization of perphenazine aerosols generated using the capillary aerosol generator.

Perphenazine (a potent antiemetic) was aerosolized using capillary aerosol generator to generate respirable condensation aerosols from drug in propylene glycol (PG) solutions, by pumping the liquids through a heated capillary tube. The study characterized the stability of perphenazine during and following aerosol generation. The stability-indicating HPLC method (C-8 column with a mobile phase of 52% 0.01 M pH 3.0 acetate buffer+48% acetonitrile) also enabled the study of perphenazine stability in solution under acidic, basic, oxidizing and photolysing conditions. An LC-MS (ESI+) method was used to characterize the degradation products. Perphenazine was found to be stable in acidic and basic conditions, while perphenazine sulfoxide was the major product formed in dilute peroxide solutions. Two photo-degradation products were formed in PG that were tentatively identified by LC-MS; one of these was synthesized and confirmed to be 2-[4-(3-phenothiazin-10-yl-propyl)-piperazino]-ethanol. Both photolysis products showed that aromatic dechlorination had occurred and one appeared to also result from interaction with the solvent. Within an aerosolization energy window of 84-95 J, fine particle aerosols were generated from perphenazine PG formulations with no significant degradation. Small amounts of degradation products were produced in all samples during aerosolization at elevated (non-optimal) energies. These were largely consistent with those seen to result from oxidation and photolysis in solution, showing that oxidation and dehalogenation appeared to be the main degradation pathways followed when the CAG system was overheated.

Aerosols↗
PubMed2005

Deconvolution and quantification of hydrocarbon-like and oxygenated organic aerosols based on aerosol mass spectrometry.

A new technique has been developed to deconvolve and quantify the mass concentrations of hydrocarbon-like and oxygenated organic aerosols (HOA and OOA) using highly time-resolved organic mass spectra obtained with an Aerodyne Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (AMS). This technique involves a series of multivariate linear regressions that use mass-to-charge ratios (ml/s) 57 (mostly C4H9+) and 44 (mostly CO2+)-the identified AMS mass spectral tracers for HOA and OOA, respectively-as the initial principal components. Two algorithms have been developed: algorithm 1 is based solely on m/z 44 and m/z 57, and algorithm 2 is an iterative procedure expanded from algorithm 1. This technique was applied to the AMS organic aerosol data acquired at the EPA Pittsburgh Supersite during September 2002. The reconstructed organic concentrations (= HOA + OOA) agree well with the measured values (r2 = 0.997, slope = 0.998), and the reconstructed organic data matrix (size = 3199 time steps x 300 m/z's) explains 99% of the variance in the measured time series. In addition, the extracted mass spectrum of HOA shows high similarity to those of diesel exhaust, lubricating oil, and freshly emitted traffic aerosols observed in urban areas, while the spectrum of OOA closely resembles those of aged organic aerosols sampled in rural areas and also shows similarity with the spectrum of fulvic acid- a humic-like substance that is ubiquitous in the environment and has previously been used as an analogue to represent polyacid components found in highly processed and oxidized atmospheric organic aerosols. There is evidence for the presence of a third component, although its contribution to the total organic signal appears to be small in this study. The most important result is that m/z 44 and m/z 57 are reliable AMS mass spectral "markers" that provide the "first guess" for algorithm 2 which allows the quantitative description of the organic aerosol concentration and mass spectra over a period of 16 days in a major urban area and allows the extraction of mass spectra of OOA and HOA that can be interpreted chemically. These findings indicate the potential of performing organic source apportionment on the basis of total particle mass, rather than on the basis of organic tracer compounds that contribute a small fraction of this mass.

Aerosols↗
PubMed2005

Aerosol generation by blower motors as a bias in assessing aerosol penetration into cabin filtration systems.

In cabin filtration systems, blower motors pressurize a vehicle cabin with clean filtered air and recirculate air through an air-conditioning evaporator coil and a heater core. The exposure reduction offered by these cabins is evaluated by optical particle counters that measure size-dependent aerosol concentration inside and outside the cabin. The ratio of the inside-to-outside concentration is termed penetration. Blower motors use stationary carbon brushes to transmit an electrical current through a rotating armature that abrades the carbon brushes. This creates airborne dust that may affect experimental evaluations of aerosol penetration. To evaluate the magnitude of these dust emissions, blower motors were placed in a test chamber and operated at 12 and 13.5 volts DC. A vacuum cleaner drew 76 m3/hour (45 cfm) of air through HEPA filters, the test chamber, and through a 5 cm diameter pipe. An optical particle counter drew air through an isokinetic sampling probe and measured the size-dependent particle concentrations from 0.3 to 15 microm. The concentration of blower motor aerosol was between 2 x 10(5) and 1.8 x 10(6) particles/m3. Aerosol penetration into three stationary vehicles, two pesticide application vehicles and one tractor were measured at two conditions: low concentration (outside in the winter) and high concentration (inside repair shops and burning incense sticks used as a supplemental aerosol source). For particles smaller than 1 microm, the in-cabin concentrations can be explained by the blower motor emissions. For particles larger than 1 microm, other aerosol sources, such as resuspended dirt, are present. Aerosol generated by the operation of the blower motor and by other sources can bias the exposure reduction measured by optical particle counters.

Aerosols↗
PubMed1993

Aerosolization of superoxide dismutase. Augmentation of respiratory epithelial lining fluid antioxidant screen by aerosolization of recombinant human Cu++/Zn++ superoxide dismutase.

Various human pulmonary diseases are characterized by an increased oxidant burden on the respiratory epithelial surface. As a step toward developing a therapy to augment the antioxidant defenses of respiratory epithelial lining fluid (ELF) of the human lung, we have evaluated the feasibility of aerosolizing a human protein antioxidant to the respiratory epithelial surface of an experimental animal sufficiently large to permit repetitive sampling of ELF. To accomplish this, recombinant human Cu++/Zn++ superoxide dismutase (rSOD) was aerosolized to sheep, and the levels of human superoxide dismutase (SOD) and antisuperoxide anion (O2.-) capacity were quantified in ELF over time. In vitro aerosolization did not alter the specific activity of rSOD (p > 0.5). In vivo aerosolization of rSOD (100 mg) to sheep (n = 7) resulted in peak amounts of human Cu++/Zn++ SOD in ELF of 3.1 +/- 0.6 mumol/L, with a parallel increase in the anti-O2.- capacity of ELF. For the duration of the study (5 h), levels of SOD and anti-O2.- in ELF remained elevated, with a value 50 percent of the peak at 5 h. Aerosolization of phosphate-buffered saline (n = 5) had no effect on SOD or anti-O2.- levels in ELF. In animals receiving rSOD, there was no change in the specific activity of SOD recovered in ELF compared to the starting material (p > 0.4). We conclude that rSOD can be delivered by aerosol to the ELF of a large animal with preservation of specific activity and that a substantial increase in both the amount of SOD and the anti-O2.- capacity can be achieved for a period of time applicable to human therapy, supporting the rationale for evaluation of rSOD aerosol as an antioxidant in human pulmonary disease.

Aerosols↗
PubMed2006

Generating monodisperse pharmacological aerosols using the spinning-top aerosol generator.

Pharmacological aerosols of precisely controlled particle size and narrow dispersity can be generated using the spinning-top aerosol generator (STAG). The ability of the STAG to generate monodisperse aerosols from solutions of raw drug compounds makes it a valuable research instrument. In this paper, the versatility of this instrument has been further demonstrated by aerosolizing a range of commercially available nebulized pulmonary therapy preparations. Nebules of Flixotide (fluticasone propionate), Pulmicort (budesonide), Combivent (salbutamol sulphate and ipratropium bromide), Bricanyl (terbutaline sulphate), Atrovent(ipratropium bromide), and Salamol (salbutamol sulphate) were each mixed with ethanol and delivered to the STAG. Monodisperse drug aerosol distributions were generated with MMADs of 0.95-6.7 microm. To achieve larger particle sizes from the nebulizer drug suspensions, the STAG formed compound particle agglomerates derived from the smaller insoluble drug particles. These compound agglomerates behaved aerodynamically as a single particle, and this was verified using an aerodynamic particle sizer and an Andersen Cascade Impactor. Scanning electron microscope images demonstrated their physical structure. On the other hand using the nebulizer drug solutions, spherical particles proportional to the original droplet diameter were generated. The aerosols generated by the STAG can allow investigators to study the scientific principles of inhaled drug deposition and lung physiology for a range of therapeutic agents.

Administration, Inhalation↗
PubMed1990

Aerosol photoemission for quantification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in simple mixtures adsorbed on carbonaceous and sodium chloride aerosols.

The photoelectric aerosol sensor was applied as a tool for the in situ and on-line detection of surface-enriched polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Carbon aerosol and sodium chloride aerosol were coated stepwise with up to four different PAHs or simultaneously with three different PAHs (internally mixed aerosol). The measured photoelectric signal of the internally mixed aerosol was compared with the expected signal, which was calculated from the previous calibration of the sensor. An additivity of the individual contributions of the absorbed PAHs on the sum signal was found. Experiments with photoelectrically inactive paraffin adsorbed on photoelectrically active aerosol particles have demonstrated that only the surface composition contributes to the photoemission signal.

Aerosols↗
PubMed1997

Aerosol electrostatics. I: Properties of fine powders before and after aerosolization by dry powder inhalers.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the dependence of fine particle dose charge (FPD charge) generated from powder inhalers on physico-chemical properties of the inhalation powder, inhaler type, deaggregation mechanism, dose number and/or retained powder. METHODS: Electrostatic charges were determined on micronized powders and aerosolized fine particle doses withdrawn from two, high efficiency, multidose powder inhalers, Turbohaler and prototype Dryhaler. The behavior of terbutaline sulfate, budesonide, albuterol (sulfate and base), beclomethasone dipropionate and lactose was assessed before and after aerosolization. RESULTS: Both inhalers conferred triboelectric FPD charges during aerosolization in the range -400 pC through +200 pC. Specific charges (charge/unit mass) on the fine particle doses of budesonide from Dryhaler were significantly less than those from Turbohaler (p < 0.01). Electrostatic charges on the potentially respirable cloud of terbutaline sulfate generated by Bricanyl Turbohaler were positive and/or negative and unpredictable. With Pulmicort Turbohaler, FPD charges on budesonide were always positive. Dryhaler was used to determine the chemical dependence of fine particle triboelectrification during the aerosolization of pure materials. A triboelectric series was constructed from the Dryhaler results ranking the powders from positive to negative as budesonide > lactose > albuterol sulfate > terbutaline sulfate > or = albuterol > or = beclomethasone dipropionate. CONCLUSIONS: While there was no evidence of FPD charge dependence upon dose number with either inhaler, FPD charges were dependent upon the powder under investigation, as well as the construction and deaggregation mechanism of the inhaler. The specific charge on the fine particle dose of budesonide from Turbohaler corresponded to approximately 200 electronic charges per particle, a value which is known to affect both total and regional aerosol deposition in the human lung. Electrostatic charge effects may be important determinants of aerosol behavior and should not be neglected.

Aerosols↗
PubMed1980

Relationship between fluid bed aerosol generator operation and the aerosol produced.

The relationships between bed operation in a fluid bed aerosol generator and aerosol output were studied. A two-inch diameter fluid bed aerosol generator (FBG) was constructed using stainless steel powder as a fluidizing medium. Fly ash from coal combustion was aerosolized and the influence of FBG operating parameters on aerosol mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD), geometric standard deviation (sigma g) and concentration was examined. In an effort to extend observations on large fluid beds to small beds using fine bed particles, minimum fluidizing velocities and elutriation constant were computed. Although FBG minimum fluidizing velocity agreed well with calculations, FBG elutriation constant did not. The results of this study show that the properties of aerosols produced by a FBG depend on fluid bed height and air flow through the bed after the minimum fluidizing velocity is exceeded.

Aerosols↗
PubMed1989

"Worst-case" aerosol testing parameters: III. Initial penetration of charged and neutralized lead fume and silica dust aerosols through clean, unloaded respirator filters.

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) tests and certifies respirator filter media according to Title 30, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 11 (30 CFR 11). Subpart K of those regulations specifies that a silica dust test, silica mist test, and/or lead fume test will be used to test and certify dust and mist; and dust, fume, and mist particulate air-purifying respirator filter media. NIOSH studies have shown that an aerosol particle of a certain size can be identified as the most penetrating particle ("worst case") size. Commercial filter media of various types have been studied and the filter's performance against a worst-case sodium chloride (NaCl) and dioctyl phthalate (DOP) aerosol evaluated. This investigation was done to complement those previous studies by determining how one manufacturer's particulate filters performed against the existing certification aerosol challenges as compared with the worst-case size DOP and NaCl aerosols. Only initial penetration values were determined, and no loading effects were considered. Both neutralized (Boltzman charge distribution) and unneutralized aerosols were used in order to assess the contribution of charging. The results show the dramatic effect of particle size on filter efficiency, and they show that the present methods are not as sensitive as the worst-case aerosol method.

Aerosols↗
PubMed1992

Difference in inhaled aerosol deposition patterns in the lungs due to three different sized aerosols.

Deposition patterns of inhaled aerosol in the lungs were studied in five normal subjects and 20 patients with lung disease by inhaling radioaerosols with three different particle size distributions. These aerosols were generated from BARC, UltraVent, and Mistogen-EN-142. Particle size distributions generated by these three nebulizers were 0.84, 1.04 and 1.93 microns in activity median aerodynamic diameter (AMAD) with its geometric standard deviation (sigma g) of 1.73, 1.71 and 1.52, respectively. Deposition patterns of inhaled aerosols were compared qualitatively and quantitatively by studying six different parameters: alveolar deposition ratio (ALDR), Xmax, Xmean, standard deviation (S.D.), skewness and kurtosis of the radioactive distribution in the lungs following inhalation. It has been found that aerosol deposition patterns varied with particle size. The unevenness of aerosol deposition, Xmax, Xmean and the number of 'hot spots' became more prominent with the increase in particle size, whereas values of ALDR and S.D. decreased as particle size increased. Knowing these deposition characteristics would facilitate a judicious application of aerosol inhalation to medical use.

Administration, Inhalation↗
PubMed1994

Aerosol deposition in cystic fibrosis using an aerosol conservation device and a conventional jet nebulizer.

The deposition of technetium radiolabelled aerosol within the lungs of 12 stable cystic fibrosis patients (mean age 12.7 years) was compared using the Acorn nebulizer and mouthpiece alone, and the Acorn nebulizer attached to the Mizer Aerosol Conservation Device (MACD). The total activity delivered to the patient using the MACD was 11.1% (+/- 7.8% s.d.) of the initial dose, compared to 5.8% (+/- 4.2% s.d.) with the nebulizer and mouthpiece alone (P < 0.05). With the MACD, 84% of the intrapulmonary dose was delivered to the peripheral regions, compared to 76.5% with the nebulizer and mouthpiece (P < 0.05). No significant correlation was found between aerosol deposition and pulmonary function. The Mizer Aerosol Conservation Device significantly increases both total intrapulmonary aerosol deposition and peripheral aerosol distribution.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Variations of chemical compositions in coarse aerosols and fine aerosols in two successive episodes.

Particulate matter with diameters less than 2.5 microm (PM2.5) and ranging between 10 to 2.5 microm (PM10-2.5) were simultaneously collected at four air-quality monitoring stations in the Taichung area of central Taiwan during the period of February 12 to 22, 2004. Two different types of PM10 episodes, a nonlocal dust-storm episode and a local episode, were observed in the present study. High concentrations of coarse aerosols occurred during the dust-storm episode, whereas high concentrations of fine aerosols were present during the local episode. Relatively high levels of Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, and Cl- in coarse aerosols were observed during the dust-storm episode. Very high concentrations of secondary aerosols (NH4+, SO4(2-), and NO3-) in fine aerosols were observed during the local episode. The nitrate ion demonstrated the greatest increase in the ratios of ionic species to PM2.5 and ionic species to PM10-2.5 during the local episode. Significantly high ratios (0.444) of NO3- to NO2 in fine aerosols were present during the local episode, indicating that the relatively high formation rate of NO3 was one of the important factors leading to the increase of the NO3 to PM2.5 ratio during the local episode. Results also showed that an abundant quantity of fine ammonium nitrate was formed during the local episode, and chloride depletion probably was the major pathway to form coarse NaNO3 during this episode.

Aerosols↗
PubMed2005

Optical and physical properties of stratospheric aerosols from balloon measurements in the visible and near-infrared domains. III. Presence of aerosols in the middle stratosphere.

The aerosol extinction measurements in the ultraviolet and visible wavelengths by the balloonborne spectrometer Spectroscopie d'Absorption Lunaire pour l'Observation des Minoritaires Ozone et NOx (SALOMON) show that aerosols are present in the middle stratosphere, above 25-km altitude. These observations are confirmed by the extinction measurements performed by a solar occultation radiometer. The balloonborne Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique (LMD) counter instrument also confirms the presence of aerosol around 30-km altitude, with an unrealistic excess of micronic particles assuming that only liquid sulfate aerosols are present. An unexpected spectral structure around 640-nm observed by SALOMON is also detectable in extinction measurements by the satellite instrument Stratospheric Aerosols and Gas Experiment III. This set of measurements could indicate that solid aerosols were detected at these altitude ranges. The amount of soot detected up to now in the lower stratosphere is too low to explain these measurements. Thus, the presence of interplanetary dust grains and micrometeorites may need to be invoked. Moreover, it seems that these grains fill the stratosphere in stratified layers.

Journal Article↗