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PubMed2004

Susceptibilities of Neisseria gonorrhoeae to fluoroquinolones and other antimicrobial agents in Hyogo and Osaka, Japan.

OBJECTIVES: Decreasing susceptibility of Neisseria gonorrhoeae to fluoroquinolones has been reported in several countries. Knowledge of local N gonorrhoeae susceptibilities to various antimicrobials is important for establishing a rational treatment strategy in each region. METHODS: Isolates of N gonorrhoeae from male urethritis patients attending four urological clinics in Hyogo and Osaka prefectures in Japan were collected during 2002. The MICs for nine antimicrobials: penicillin G, tetracycline, cefixime, ceftriaxone, levofloxacin, gatifloxacin, ciprofloxacin, moxifloxacin, and spectinomycin were determined for each isolate. All isolates were also tested for beta lactamase producing profiles. RESULTS: Among the 87 isolates obtained, only one isolate was revealed to produce beta lactamase. MIC90 values for ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, gatifloxacin, and moxifloxacin were over 8 microg/ml, over 8 microg/ml, 4 microg/ml, and 2 microg/ml, respectively. The proportion of isolates resistant to fluoroquinolones was over 60% (ciprofloxacin, 70.1%; levofloxacin, 65.5%; gatifloxacin, 70.1%). Chromosomally mediated penicillin and tetracycline resistance was identified in 12.6% and 33.3% of the isolates. MIC90 values for cefixime and ceftriaxone and were 0.5 microg/ml and 0.0063 microg/ml. All isolates were sensitive to ceftriaxone and 90.8% of them were sensitive to cefixime. MIC90 for spectinomycin was 32 microg/ml and all isolates were sensitive to it. Fluoroquinolone resistance correlated significantly with MICs for penicillin G but not tetracycline. CONCLUSION: Ceftriaxone and spectinomycin demonstrated lower MICs and so are recommended for N gonorrhoeae. Susceptibilities of N gonorrhoeae should be monitored periodically by region.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗
PubMed1978

In-vitro antimicrobial susceptibility of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in New Zealand.

Four hundred and forty-two isolates of Neisseria gonorrhoeae were tested by an agar dilution method for their susceptibility to penicillin, ampicillin, tetracycline, cephaloridine, and spectinomycin. Of these isolates, 295 were tested for their susceptibility to sulphamethoxazole and to trimethoprim by the same method, using Oxoid diagnostic sensitivity test agar plus 7.5% laked horse blood instead of Proteose No. 3 agar plus 1% IsoVitaleX and 1% haemoglobin. One hundred (22.6%) of the isolates were found to be relatively resistant to penicillin (minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) less than 0.1 iu/ml), but only 1.1% had a MIC of 1 iu/ml or higher. Ampicillin was slightly more active than penicillin in that all isolates were inhibited by 0.5 microgram/ml or less. For 3.7% of isolates the MIC of tetracycline was 2 microgram/ml or higher. All isolates were sensitive to spectinomycin. By calculating the Spearman rank correlation coefficient (rs), a high correlation (rs greater than 0.5) was found between susceptibility to penicillin and susceptibility to ampicillin, tetracycline, and cephaloridine. Low correlation (rs less than 0.2) was found between susceptibility to penicillin and susceptibility to spectinomycin, sulphamethoxazole, and trimethoprim.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗
PubMed1979

Single-dose minocycline in the treatment of gonococcal urethritis. Clinical efficacy in relation to bacterial resistance and its effects on associated Chlamydia trachomatis infections.

Seventy-two men with gonococcal urethritis were given a single 300-mg dose of minocycline. The failure rate was 13% and the trial was terminated at an early stage. Failure was correlated with increased resistance of Neisseria gonorrhoeae to minocycline. The activity of penicillin, spectinomycin, erythromycin, tetracycline, sulphamethoxazole, cefuroxime, cefotaxime, rosamicin, thiamphenicol, and piperacillin against N. gonorrhoeae were examined in vitro. With the exception of spectinomycin, parallel patterns of resistance to the other antibiotics and minocycline were found. Resistance to spectinomycin was not found, confirming the usefulness of this antibiotic in the treatment of gonorrhoea. The incidence of PGU was significantly lower after a single dose of minocycline than in previous studies.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗
PubMed1983

Antimicrobial sensitivity of Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Comparison of penicillinase producing and non-penicillinase producing strains.

The sensitivity of 42 strains of penicillinase producing Neisseria gonorrhoeae (PPNG) and 46 strains of non-PPNG was tested against benzyl penicillin, spectinomycin, erythromycin, cefuroxime, ceftriaxone, tetracycline, sulphamethoxazole, and trimethoprim. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of all antimicrobials, except trimethoprim and ceftriaxone, differed significantly for PPNG and non-PPNG strains. Ceftriaxone was the most active compound tested, the MIC for all strains being less than or equal to 0.015 mg/1. PPNG were less sensitive than non-PPNG strains to spectinomycin. It remains to be seen whether the increase in prevalence of PPNG strains is followed by a gradual increase in low level resistance to spectinomycin as well as the occasional finding of high level resistance to this antibiotic.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗
PubMed2004

Isolation and antimicrobial susceptibilities of bacterial pathogens from bovine pneumonia: 1994--2002.

Between 1994 and 2002, a total of 390 (46.3%) Mannheimia haemolytica, 292 (34.7%) Pasteurella multocida, and 160 (19.0%) Histophilus somni were isolated at the Oklahoma Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory from lungs from 6-18-month-old beef cattle with pneumonia. The ratio of M. haemolytica isolations to P. multocida isolations decreased from 3.1 in 1994 to 0.8 in 2000 while increasing to 1.5 in 2002. Mannheimia haemolytica isolations significantly (P < 0.05) decreased from 62.5% in 1994 to between 30.6% and 50.4% in 1998--2002. Pasteurella multocida isolations significantly (P < 0.05) increased from 20.0% in 1994 to between 28.6% and 47.4% in 1998--2002. Histophilus somni isolations were <19% except in 1998 (40.8%) and 1999 (23%). Antimicrobial susceptibilities for M. haemolytica significantly declined for erythromycin (P = 0.0001), florfenicol (P = 0.0004), spectinomycin (P = 0.0001), and tilmicosin (P = 0.03). For P. multocida, antimicrobial susceptibilities significantly declined for erythromycin (P = 0.0001), florfenicol (P = 0.004), spectinomycin (P = 0.03), sulfachloropyridizine (P = 0.028), tetracycline (P = 0.017), tilmicosin (P = 0.0001), and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (P = 0.0003). Antimicrobial susceptibilities for H. somni were variable for spectinomycin and sulfachloropyridizine, whereas susceptibilities to other antibiotics remained consistently high.

Animals↗
PubMed2025

Global genomic and antimicrobial resistance profiling of Neisseria gonorrhoeae: Insights from whole genome sequencing and minimum inhibitory concentration analysis.

BACKGROUND: The rising antimicrobial resistance (AMR) of Neisseria gonorrhoeae is a major global health concern that limits treatment options and complicates disease management. Efflux pump systems and resistance genes are key to bacteria's ability to evade antibiotics. This study examined the genetic and phenotypic resistance landscape using a large dataset of whole-genome sequences to identify key resistance mechanisms, assess efflux pump gene prevalence, and analyze regional variations in Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) values to inform treatment strategies and public health interventions. METHODS: A total of 38,585 whole-genome sequences of N. gonorrhoeae were analyzed to identify AMR determinants. This study focused on the presence and distribution of efflux pump genes (mtrC, farB, norM, and mtrA) and specific resistance genes, including tet(C) (tetracycline resistance) and aph(3')-Ia (aminoglycoside resistance). The MIC values were assessed for multiple antibiotics to evaluate resistance trends and regional variations, including penicillin, spectinomycin, zoliflodacin, gentamicin, and fluoroquinolones. RESULTS: This analysis revealed widespread resistance to multiple antibiotics. Efflux pump genes (mtrC, farB, norM, and mtrA) were found in nearly all isolates, highlighting their essential roles in resistance and adaptation. The presence of tet(C) and aph (3')-Ia varied across different Gene Presence Patterns, suggesting that regional or therapeutic factors may influence tetracycline and aminoglycoside resistance. High MIC values for penicillin were observed, likely because of blaTEM, a beta-lactamase gene responsible for beta-lactam resistance. Resistance to spectinomycin is also widespread, raising concerns about the diminishing efficacy of this antibiotic. In contrast, zoliflodacin, gentamicin, and fluoroquinolones exhibited relatively low MIC values, indicating their sustained effectiveness against N. gonorrhoeae. DISCUSSION: Efflux pump systems are key to N. gonorrhoeae resistance and adaptability. Regional MIC variations indicate that local antibiotic use shapes resistance patterns. The high resistance to penicillin and spectinomycin highlights the need for alternative treatments, whereas zoliflodacin and fluoroquinolones remain effective but require monitoring. This study emphasizes global AMR surveillance, novel therapies, and targeted antimicrobial stewardship to address multidrug-resistant infections.

Neisseria gonorrhoeae↗
PubMed1980

Effect of chemotherapeutic agents on Pasteurella anatipestifer infection in White Pekin ducklings.

In a series of experiments, various chemotherapeutic agents administered in feed were evaluated for their efficacy against experimental Pasteurella anatipestifer (PA) infection in White Pekin ducklings. The feeding of medicated diets was started 3 days prior to challenge and continued throughout each experiment. Novobiocin and lincomycin, when fed at adequate concentrations, were the most effective medicaments tested. Mortality in treated groups was 0-18% compared with 45-92% mortality in controls. Sulfadimethoxine-ormetoprim, sulfaquinoxaline, and lincomycin-spectinomycin were moderately effective. Drugs that were not effective included chlortetracycline, tylosin-sulfamethazine, fosfomycin, furazolidone, nihydrazone, penicillin, bacitracin, and erythromycin. Six antibiotics were tested parenterally against experimental PA infection in another series of experiments. A single dose of an antibiotic was injected subcutaneously 5 to 6 hr after infection except in one experiment in which treatment was delayed until 24 hr after infection. When given 5 to 6 hr after infection, lincomycin-spectinomycin, penicillin-streptomycin, penicillin, oxytetracycline, and spectinomycin significantly reduced mortality. Gentamicin tested under the same conditions was ineffective. Drugs injected 24 hr after infection were not effective.

Animals↗
PubMed1976

Drug treatment of venereal disease: analysis of 273 cases in Ghana.

The presence of non-gonococcal urethritis, resistant to penicillin therapy was noted by Ikejiani in Nigeria as early as 1955. This syndrome is now known as non-specific urethritis, or non-specific genital infection in the female. Sarrat (1973) has shown the effectiveness of penicillin plus probenecid, specti nomycin, and cotrimoxazole in male cases of gonorrhoea in Dakar. Sogbetun and Osoba (1974) have shown the effectiveness of metronidazole in trichomoniasis in males in Nigeria. Our study was made on a mixed University population of 2,700 students seen in one clinic during the year 1975. There were 273 cases of sexually transmitted diseases including gonorrhoea, non-specific urethritis or genital disease, trichomoniasis and chronic urethritis or vaginitis. Treatment of gonorrhoea with penicillin alone or with spectinomycin was only 50% effective. But good results were obtained with penicillin plus probenecid or penicillin plus cotrimoxazole. Good results were obtained in non-specific urethritis, or non-specific genital disease, when tetracycline or its derivatives were used. Good results were obtained in the treatment of trichomoniasis with metronidazole in males and females. It was concluded that in gonorrhoea penicillin should be given (in adequate dosage) with probenecid or cotrimoxazole. Spectinomycin should be used at a dose level of 4 g instead of 2 g. The management of chronic urethritis and vaginitis was very difficult. The drug treatment of venereal disease in Ghana has not revealed any unique characteristics except, perhaps, an increased resistance of the gonococcus to spectinomycin.

Female↗
PubMed1999

Susceptibility pattern of Neisseria gonorrhoeae to antimicrobial agents in Dar es Salaam.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the susceptibility pattern of local strains of Neisseria gonorrhoeae from Dar es salaam, Tanzania to locally used antibiotics. METHOD: Out of 429 Neisseria gonorrhoeae strains isolated between 1993 and 1995, one hundred and ninety nine were recovered and tested. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of penicillin, doxycycline, erythromycin, cefuroxime and ciprofloxacin were determined by the E-test method while that of spectinomycin was measured by the agar dilution method. Penicillinase producing N. gonorrhoeae were identified by the chromogenic cephalosporin method. RESULTS: Of the 199 strains tested 128 (64%) were found to be penicillinase producing Neisseria gonorrhoeae (PPNG). Only 19 (10%) were penicillin sensitive while all penicillin resistant strains were found to be PPNG. One hundred and seventy five (88%), 11(5%) and 13 (7%) of the tested isolates were resistant, less susceptible and fully susceptible to doxycycline respectively. Resistance to cotrimoxazole, cefuroxime and ciprofloxacin was 36 (18%), 11 (6%), and 3 (2%) respectively. The trend of antibiotic susceptibility rates over the three year period of study showed a significant increase in the proportion of susceptible strains to cotrimoxazole. All of the 75 strains tested against spectinomycin were susceptible. There was a statistically significant difference between the susceptibility patterns of non-PPNG and PPNG. Non-PPNG isolates were more susceptible to doxycycline (chi 2 = 78.2, df 2, p = < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: These findings have shown that spectinomycin, ciprofloxacin and cefuroxime could continue to be used to treat gonorrhoea in our settings. Continuous surveillance of susceptibility to the commonly used antibiotics is important in order to detect emergence of resistance early and control the possible wide spread of resistant strains.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗
PubMed1990

Antimicrobial resistance in streptococcal species isolated from bovine mammary glands.

Streptococcal species isolated from dairy cows with clinical mastitis were obtained from mastitis research workers in Florida, Louisiana, New York, Vermont, Washington, and West Virginia. Seventy-one streptococcal isolates were tested, including 39 strains of Streptococcus agalactiae, 21 strains of S dysgalactiae, and 11 strains of S uberis. The minimal inhibitory concentration of erythromycin, lincomycin, oxytetracycline, penicillin, spectinomycin, streptomycin, and tetracycline was determined for each isolate. Differences were not detected among strains with respect to geographic origin. None of the strains was resistant to penicillin. Lincomycin was the next most effective antimicrobial, with only 2 resistant strains of each streptococcal species. There were no differences among the streptococcal species with respect to resistance to either penicillin or lincomycin. Streptococcus uberis was more likely to be resistant to erythromycin than were S agalactiae and S dysgalactiae (P less than 0.02). Streptococcus agalactiae and S uberis had similar distributions for resistance to oxytetracycline, tetracycline, spectinomycin, and streptomycin. Strains of S dysgalactiae were more likely to have intermediate resistance to oxytetracycline and streptomycin than were strains of S agalactiae and S uberis, which were highly resistant to oxytetracycline and streptomycin (P less than 0.001). Differences were not detected among the streptococcal species with respect to resistance to spectinomycin. Resistance to multiple antimicrobials was observed in all streptococcal species tested. Although S dysgalactiae appeared to have a greater percentage of strains (73%) that were resistant to multiple antimicrobials than did S agalactiae (31%) or S uberis (45%), differences were not statistically significant.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

[In vitro activities of 9 aminosides against of 250 strains of Neisseria gonorrhoeae].

We compared the in vitro activities of 9 aminoglycosides including trospectomycin sulfate against 250 selected strains of Neisseria gonorrhoeae according to their penicillin resistance (penicillinase production), streptomycin resistance, spectinomycin resistance. Trospectomycin sulfate inhibited all spectinomycin-sensible strain at a concentration of 4 mg/l but the spectinomycin-resistant strain needed 32 mg/l for its inhibition. Among the other aminoglycosides tested netilmicin had the most in vitro effectiveness. Its minimal inhibitory concentrations were comparable to that of trospectomycin sulfate: furthermore this compound demonstrated in vitro activity against the spectino-resistant strain.

Aminoglycosides↗
PubMed1983

[Sensitivity of Pasteurella multocida strains to antibiotics and chemotherapeutic agents].

The disk diffusion method was employed to test the sensitivity of a total of 330 Pasteurella multocida strains to streptomycin and kanamycin, of 309 strains to erythromycin, of 315 strains to chloramphenicol, of 240 strains to tetracycline, of 213 strains to gentamycin, of 211 strains to ampicillin, of 209 strains to neomycin, of 199 strains to novobiocin, of 169 to spectinomycin, of 162 to borgal, and of 67 strains to furazolidon. All tested strains were isolated from birds with cholera and from mammals with pneumonia, showing 100 per cent sensitivity to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, erythromycin, tetracycline, gentamycin, and borgal, 88.2 per cent to spectinomycin, 86.6% to furazolidon, 74.2% to neomycin, 52.7% to kanamycin, 23.7% to streptomycin, 32.7% to novobiocin. 13.9 per cent of the P. multocida strains only were resistant to streptomycin. Strains of intermediate sensitivity were as follows: 67.3%--to novobiocin, 62.4%--to streptomycin, 47.3%--to kanamycin, 25.8%--to neomycin, 13.4%--to furazolidon, and 11.8%--to spectinomycin. Ninety-seven strains (42 from birds, 23 from pigs, and 32 from rabbits) were tested for sensitivity in solid media to lowest inhibiting concentrations of tetracycline--4 micrograms/cm3, gentamycine--6 micrograms/cm3, chloramphenicol--12.5 micrograms/cm3, kanamycin--6 micrograms/cm3, erythromycin--8 micrograms/cm3, ampicillin--8 micrograms/cm3, and imekil--0.8 microgram. All tested strains were sensitive to these concentrations. For the treatment and prophylaxis of birds (fowl cholera) and mammals (pasteurellosis) a wide set of antibiotics and chemotherapeutic agents can be used.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗
PubMed1995

Comparisons of antibiotic combinations to control Pseudomonas aeruginosa in bovine semen.

Raw semen experimentally contaminated with 10(6) Pseudomonas aeruginosa cells per milliliter was processed for use in artificial insemination (AI) using three different antibiotic combinations: a) gentamicin, lincomycin, spectinomycin and tylosin (GLST) directly added to contaminated raw semen followed by dilution with whole milk or egg yolk Tris containing GLST; b) penicillin, streptomycin, lincomycin, spectinomycin and minocycline (PSLSM) in whole milk used to dilute the contaminated raw semen followed by further dilution with glycerolated milk containing PSLSM; and c) penicillin, streptomycin, lincomycin and spectinomycin (PSLS) used with egg yolk Tris diluent in the same way as PSLSM and milk. Diluted semen was incubated at 35 degrees C for 5 or 40 min before cooling commenced. To assess the efficacy of the antibiotics in controlling P. aeruginosa, diluted semen samples were cultured for the organism before and after freezing. The GLST antibiotics added to raw semen and milk reduced the counts of P. aeruginosa before or after freezing. When egg yolk Tris was used, GLST inhibited the organism as indicated by its low growth in culture before freezing and absence of growth from samples after freezing. With PSLSM and PSLS treatments, the organism was recovered in milk and egg yolk Tris processed semen both before and after freezing. However, incubation at 35 degrees C for 40 min prior to cooling, compared to incubation of 5 min, appeared to reduce the bacterial counts after freezing.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Variation of the incidence and antibiotic sensitivity of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in a 7-year period].

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to determine the incidence and antibiotic sensitivity of Neisseria gonorrhoeae versus penicillin, tetracycline, cefoxitin, ceftriaxone and spectinomycin from 1988 to 1994 in the province of Soria (Spain). METHODS: From January 1988 to December 1994, clinical samples of 57 strains of N. gonorrhoeae were isolated. Auxotype, serotype, and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) studies were performed versus 5 antimicrobials and analysis of plasmids in the penicillinase producer strains (PPNG), was carried out in the Bacteriology Department of the Instituto Carlos III in Madrid (Spain). RESULTS: The rate of incidence of the isolation of N. gonorrhoeae was similar from 1988 to 1990 (11.7 to 19.1 cases per 100,000 inhabitants) and decreased from 1991 to 1994 (6.4 to 0 cases per 100,000 inhabitants). The strains belonged to 30 different auxotypes/serotypes indicating a great heterogeneity among them. The proportion of penicillinase producing N. gonorrhoeae (PPNG) increased over the study period. The first strains with high resistance to tetracycline (TRNG) were first isolated in the authors' area in 1991 and the proportion increased up to the end of the study. All the strains were sensitive to ceftriaxone, cefoxitin and spectinomycin. CONCLUSIONS: A decrease was observed in the rate of incidence of N. gonorrhoeae since 1991 with an increase in the proportion of NGPP and TRNG strains. Ceftriaxone and spectinomycin present good activity versus all the strains studied with their empiric use as treatment being possible in the province of Soria (Spain).

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

The chloroplast ycf8 open reading frame encodes a photosystem II polypeptide which maintains photosynthetic activity under adverse growth conditions.

We have engineered and analyzed a chloroplast mutant of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii that lacks ycf8, the chloroplast open reading frame 8, which is highly conserved in location and predicted amino acid sequence in land plants and C.reinhardtii. The ycf8 sequence was replaced with the aadA cassette which confers resistance to spectinomycin when expressed in the chloroplast. Although the mutant is able to grow phototrophically, photosystem II function and cell growth are impaired under stress conditions such as high light intensity and diminished chloroplast protein synthesis induced by spectinomycin. Use of an antibody generated against the ycf8 product has revealed that this hydrophobic polypeptide is associated with photosystem II, based on its severely reduced levels in various photosystem II-deficient mutants and on its copurification with photosystem II. This protein, therefore, appears to be (i) a novel photosystem II subunit and (ii) required for maintaining optimal photosystem II activity under adverse growth conditions.

Animals↗
PubMed1977

The effect of translation and transcription inhibitors on the synthesis of periplasmic phosphatases in E. coli.

Previous studies by others have indicated that the synthesis of secreted enzymes is unusually sensitive to many translation inhibitors and resistant, for about 30 min, to rifampicin. We have studied the sensitivity of secreted (periplasmic) phosphatases to such inhibitors. Alkaline phosphatase synthesis is more sensitive than total protein synthesis to tetracyclin and spectinomycin, but not to sparsomycin, streptomycin, chloramphenicol, kasugamycin, blasticidin S or thiostrepton; it is slightly more resistant than total protein synthesis to the latter two antibiotics. Acid hexose-phosphatase was also preferentially sensitive to tetracyclin and spectinomycin and also to kasugamycin. beta-galactosidase was also included in the study, as an intracellular enzyme, and was found to be preferentially inhibited ("repressed"), sometimes transiently, by all eight translation inhibitors. This effect did not seem to be mediated through cyclic AMP or guanosine tetraphosphate; the "repression" was still evident in mutants with altered rho factor indicating that it may also not be related to artificial polarity. Synthesis of both periplasmic phosphatases was immediately inhibited by rifampicin. These results differ from those found in previous studies with other organisms and suggest a reappraisal of the usual interpretation of these phenomena.

Acid Phosphatase↗
PubMed1989

Comparative in vitro activity of norfloxacin against resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae.

The in vitro activity of seven antibiotics against 52 isolates of Neisseria gonorrhoeae was determined. Against penicillinase-producing Neisseria gonorrhoeae, ceftriaxone was the most active agent (MIC90 0.015 micrograms/ml), followed by ceftizoxime and norfloxacin (MIC90 0.03-0.125 micrograms/ml). Against spectinomycin-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae, the most active agents were ceftizoxime, ceftriaxone and norfloxacin (MIC90 0.015-0.125 micrograms/ml). Ceftizoxime, ceftriaxone and norfloxacin were also the most active agents against tetracycline-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae (MIC90 0.06-0.125 micrograms/ml). Overall, the rank order of activity from the most to the least active agent was as follows: ceftizoxime (MIC90 0.015 micrograms/ml); ceftriaxone (MIC90 0.06 micrograms/ml); norfloxacin (MIC90 0.125 micrograms/ml); cefoxitin (MIC90 2 micrograms/ml); tetracycline (MIC90 8 micrograms/ml); penicillin (MIC90 greater than 8 micrograms/ml); and spectinomycin (MIC90 greater than 128 micrograms/ml).

Ceftizoxime↗
PubMed2000

Stable chloroplast transformation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii using microprojectile bombardment.

The chloroplasts of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii were transformed using a vector (paadAGUS4.1) that contained a spectinomycin-resistance gene (aadA) as a selectable gene, and bacterial uidA (GUS) as a reporter gene, and pea 4.1 kb D-loop containing sequence. The vector was introduced into the alga through particle gun bombardment. The transformed colonies were screened for the presence of foreign genes by Southern hybridization using GUS, aadA and 4.1 pea Ori probes. Expression of aadA and GUS genes was detected in all colonies that were grown on spectinomycin. A detailed restriction analysis followed by southern hybridization of total genomic DNA using pea 4.1 kb D-loop as probe indicated that the D-loop sequence can serve in site-specific integration of foreign DNA due to high homology. Restriction analysis of different colonies showed that the foreign DNA was probably present in a mixture population of autonomous segment and integrated in the native chloroplast genome.

Animals↗