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PubMed1988

Influence of stationary and moving textured backgrounds on the response of visual neurons in toads (Bufo bufo L.).

Previous studies have shown that configurational prey recognition in common toads is performed by feature-analyzing functional units consisting of assemblies of connected neurons such as retinal (classes R2, R3), tectal [classes T5(1), T5(2), T5(3)], and pretectal (class TH3) cells. In the present paper, effects of textured backgrounds on the response of these neurons to a configurational moving stimulus have been tested quantitatively. (1) In all investigated neurons, neither the overall activation nor the respective stimulus-response relationships were significantly influenced by a stationary black/white-textured background as far as black stimulus objects are concerned. (2) The neuronal activity in response to a moving object (signal) could be inhibited (masked) if a black/white-textured background (noise) was moving simultaneously at the same speed. The strength (I) of this 'surround inhibition' (signal masking by the background) was different in the various classes of neurons, i.e. strongest for T5(2) and weakest for R3: IT5(2) greater than IT5(1) greater than IT5(3) greater than IR2 greater than ITH3 greater than IR3. These inhibitory effects were not correlated with the size of the neuronal excitatory receptive field (ERF), since T4 neurons (ERF = 180 degrees) in this context displayed response properties similar to T5(2) neurons (ERF less than 30 degrees). (3) It is suggested that the signal (prey)-masking effect of a moving textured background is brought about by pretecto (TH3)-tectal [T5(1), T5(2)] inhibitory connectivity which allows toads: (a) to select prey from nonprey; (b) to discriminate between prey and a textured background, and (c) to determine the origin of moving retinal images caused either by object movement or by self-induced motion.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

Reciprocal connections between the nucleus interpositus of the cerebellum and precerebellar nuclei.

Reciprocal excitatory connections which give rise to reverberatory activity were investigated by intracellular recording and retrograde horseradish peroxidase (HRP) transport. Neurons in the interpositus nucleus (IP) were activated antidromically from the nucleus reticularis tegmenti pontis (NRTP) and paramedian reticular nucleus (PMRN). Stimulation of these nuclei and lateral reticular nucleus (LRN) elicited monsynaptic EPSPs in IP neurons. PMRN neurons could be activated antidromically as well as orthodromically from IP. HRP-positive neurons were found in NRTP, PMRN and LRN following injection of HRP into IP. Neuronal connections of IP-NRTP-IP, IP-PMRN-IP and IP-RN-LRN-IP were suggested as possible components of reverberating circuits.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Connections of the corpus cerebelli in the thornback guitarfish, Platyrhinoidis triseriata (Elasmobranchii): a study with WGA-HRP and extracellular granule cell recording.

The neuronal connections of the cerebellar corpus in the guitarfish Platyrhinoidis triseriata were investigated by WGA-HRP injections and extracellular recording of sensory evoked electrical activity. Injections of WGA-HRP into the corpus resulted in retrograde labeling of the following cell groups bilaterally: pretectal and accessory optic nuclei, interstitial nucleus of Cajal, nucleus ruber, oculomotor and possibly trochlear nucleus, central (periaqueductal) gray, nucleus H, reticular formation of the midbrain, cerebellar nucleus, caudal part of nucleus F, tentatively locus coeruleus and subcoeruleus field, octaval and trigeminal nuclei, intermediate octavolateralis nucleus, medial inferior reticular formation, lateral reticular nucleus, and spinal cord. Unilaterally labeled cells were seen in the contralateral inferior olive, which was found to project in sagittal zones onto the molecular layer of the corpus. Terminal fields of efferent Purkinje cell axons were labeled over the ipsilateral cerebellar nucleus exclusively. Purkinje cells in different parts of the corpus project topographically onto subdivisions of the nucleus. Mapping of evoked electrical multiple unit activity recorded from the granule cell layer of the corpus shows separate visual and tactile areas, mostly confined to the anterior and posterior lobes, respectively. Granule cells within the tactile area also responded to lateral line stimuli and, at two distinct medial locations in the caudal and rostral parts of the posterior lobe, to weak electric field stimulation in the bath. The body surface is somatotopically represented in the tactile area, but discontinuities in the map might indicate that the somatotopy is "fractured".

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Posteroventral cochlear nucleus projections to olivocochlear neurons.

The presence of ascending auditory inputs from the posteroventral cochlear nucleus (PVCN) to olivocochlear neurons was examined in guinea pig by using the combination Phaseolus vulgaris-leucoagglutinin (PHA-L) anterograde and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) retrograde tract-tracing technique. By labeling the somata of olivocochlear neurons after injection of HRP into the cochlea and simultaneously labeling terminal endings of PVCN efferent neurons after injection of PHA-L into PVCN, we observed neuronal connections between these two elements within all regions of the superior olivary complex known to contain olivocochlear neurons. These regions include the superior paraolivary nucleus, medial nucleus of the trapezoid body, lateral superior olive, and periolivary regions. All possible projection patterns regarding side of input and output of both large (four combinations) and small (two combinations) olivocochlear neurons were observed. However, the most frequently observed pattern was the PVCN projection to a contralaterally located and contralaterally projecting, large olivocochlear neuron. Thus the most prevalent pattern demonstrated a feedback pathway that crossed the brainstem twice. Additional patterns demonstrated pathways that fed back to the same cochlea as well as pathways that fed forward to the opposite cochlea.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Role of immediate early gene expression in cortical morphogenesis and plasticity.

During the development of the central nervous system, there is a fundamental requirement for synaptic activity in transforming immature neuronal connections into organized functional circuits (Katz 1996). The molecular mechanisms underlying activity-dependent adaptive changes in neurons are believed to involve regulated cascades of gene expression. Immediate early genes (IEGs) comprise the initial cascade of gene expression responsible for initiating the process of stimulus-induced adaptive change, and were identified initially as transcription factors that were regulated in brain by excitatory synaptic activity. More recently, a class of neuronal immediate early genes has been identified that encodes growth factors, signaling molecules, extracellular matrix and adhesion proteins, and cytoskeletal proteins that are rapidly and transiently expressed in response to glutamatergic neurotransmission. This review focuses on the neuronal immediate early gene (nIEG) response, in particular, the class of "effector" immediate early gene proteins that may directly modify neuronal and synaptic function.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1996

The role of synapses in cortical computation.

The synapse, first introduced as physiological hypothesis by C.S. Sherrington at the close of the nineteenth century, has, 100 years on, become the nexus for anatomical and functional investigations of interneuronal communication. A number of hypotheses have been proposed that give local synaptic interactions specific roles in generating an algebra or logic for computations in the neocortex. Experimental work, however, has provided little support for such schemes. Instead, both structural and functional studies indicate that characteristically cortical functions, e.g., the identification of the motion or orientation of objects, involve computations that must be achieved with high accuracy through the collective action of hundreds or thousands of neurons connected in recurrent microcircuits. Some important principles that emerge from this collective action can effectively be captured by simple electronic models. More detailed models explain the nature of the complex computations performed by the cortical circuits and how the computations remain so remarkably robust in the face of a number of sources of noise, including variability in the anatomical connections, large variance in the synaptic responses and in the trial-to-trial output of single neurons, and weak or degraded input signals.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Marginal topography of neurons expressing the substance P receptor in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus.

Neurons expressing the substance P (SP) receptor (NK1 receptor) in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus (SCN) have been topographically identified using radioactive in situ hybridization histochemistry. In the anterior hypothalamic area, clustered labeled neurons of small size and exhibiting low levels of gene expression are observed exclusively at the dorsolateral margin of the SCN, straddling cytoarchitectural boundaries of the nucleus. The marginal topography of neurons putative target of a SP-containing retinal input to the ventral SCN indicates that their dendrites bearing the receptor extend towards the retinorecipient part of the nucleus, where they can be modulated by overlapping inputs from the intergeniculate leaflet and the raphe. Eventual interactions between glutamatergic and putative tachykininergic retinal pathways for a coherent photic control of circadian rhythms may therefore occur mainly via intrinsic neuronal connections between their distinct target populations. In addition, since glutamate and SP induce electrophysiological responses in ventrolateral neurons with no interactive effect, neurons integrating both chemical signals, subsequently to their modulation by several influences, may be not located within the ventrolateral SCN. Alternatively but not exclusively, marginal neurons could be a target of SP-containing neurons within the SCN or nearby the nucleus, or from ascending projections from the raphé where serotonin and SP colocalize. The marginal topography of neurons expressing the SP receptor supports the view of the involvement of neurons located in the vicinity of the nucleus in the regulation of circadian rhythms.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Structural maturation, cell proliferation and bioelectric activity in long-term slice-cultures of immature rat hippocampus.

Explants of transverse slices of the 6-day-old rat hippocampus were grown in a serum-free medium for 2-14 days. Histology performed after various culturing periods demonstrated that these slices maintain a high degree of 3-dimensional organotypy, while undergoing growth and differentiation of the main cellular elements similar to that seen in vivo. Histological indications of continuing cell proliferation were verified by autoradiography showing a labelling of neuroblasts in the dentate gyrus and of glioblasts at the sites of gliogenesis observed in vivo. Spontaneous bioelectric activity and evoked potentials were recorded, both indicating the development of impulse generation and neuronal connectivity within the explant. Silver impregnation and electron microscopic studies lent further support for the presence of neuronal networks intrinsic to the hippocampus. These findings suggest that within the period studied the hippocampal slice cultures mature in a fashion similar to that seen in situ.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Quantitative analysis of the dendritic morphology of corticocortical projection neurons in the macaque monkey association cortex.

The polymodal association areas of the primate cerebral cortex are heavily interconnected and play a crucial role in cognition. Area 46 of the prefrontal cortex in non-human primates receives direct inputs from several association areas, among them the cortical regions lining the superior temporal sulcus. We examined whether projection neurons providing such a corticocortical projection differ in their dendritic morphology from pyramidal neurons projecting locally within area 46. Specific sets of corticocortical projection neurons were identified by in vivo retrograde transport in young macaque monkeys. Full dendritic arbors of retrogradely labeled neurons were visualized in brain slices by targeted intracellular injection of Lucifer Yellow, and reconstructed three-dimensionally using computer-assisted morphometry. Total dendritic length, numbers of segments, numbers of spines, and spine density were analyzed in layer III pyramidal neurons forming long projections (from the superior temporal cortex to prefrontal area 46), as well as local projections (within area 46). Sholl analysis was also used to compare the complexity of these two groups of neurons. Our results demonstrate that long corticocortical projection neurons connecting the temporal and prefrontal cortex have longer, more complex dendritic arbors and more spines than pyramidal neurons projecting locally within area 46. The more complex dendritic arborization of such neurons is likely linked to their participation in cortical networks that require extensive convergence of multiple afferents at the cellular level.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Neuronal networks in vitro: formation and organization on biofunctionalized surfaces.

Receptor-mediated recognition of substrate molecules is a prerequisite for nerve cells in order to find their target structures in vivo and leads to formation of neuronal connections and networks. In order to study these mechanisms under in vitro conditions, we cultured embryonic hippocampal neurons or neuronal cell lines, SH-SY5Y and PCC7-PCC7-Mz1, onto biofunctionalized surfaces. Micropatterning on polymer surfaces, glass- and silicone-oxide-based chip materials was performed in a micrometer range by microcontact printing using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) stamps. Hippocampal neurons were found to form networks on chip surfaces under serum-free conditions and remained functional for more than a week. Human neuroblastoma cells SH-SY5Y as well as PCC7-Mz1 stem cells were found to follow microcontact printed pattern on polystyrene surfaces. Both cell lines showed neuronal marker expression and were cultured for up to 7 days with serum containing culture medium. Widths of 3-5 microm of coating lines were found to enhance single cell spreading along the pattern. The techniques described in this study may be useful in promoting nerve cell regeneration and organization following transection due to trauma or surgery. The neuronal alignment and network formation in vitro may furthermore serve as a model system in the field of biosensors.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1993

Silver staining as a tool for neurotoxic assessment.

There is no denying that the silver methods lost their dominant role as tract-tracing methods in the past 10 to 15 years. But it seems equally clear that the silver technique is headed for a dramatic revival in many fields of neuroscience, where the scope and localization of neuronal degeneration are a central issue. Together with the immunostaining of proteins formed or altered in traumatized neurons, the modern silver techniques provide neurotoxicologists and neuropathologists with unparalleled opportunities to detect and study injured and dying neurons. Characterized by great sensitivity and distinct rendition of the morphology of degenerating neurons and their processes, the reduced silver methods constitute the ideal tool for screening irreversible neuronal damage caused by neurotoxic substances including drugs of abuse. Those interested in the rapidly expanding fields of "excitotoxicity" and neurodegenerative disorders (Taylor 1991) are also likely to find increasing use for the silver methods. The pattern of degeneration in so-called "system degenerations" may be predetermined by the neuronal connections (Saper et al. 1987), and as the disease progresses from the destruction of the originally affected neuron population, closely related systems and pathways may be recruited into the pathophysiologic cascade. Any type of trauma to the CNS has the potential to produce this type of "domino effect" of degeneration, through which additional systems are progressively recruited into a degenerative chain reaction of transneuronal degeneration. In other words, even longstanding disorders may exhibit signs of more recent degeneration, and the proper use of silver methods at autopsy may give some important clues regarding the etiology of disease; it may also provide new insights about the anatomy of the human brain. Little can be said at present about the chemical basis of argyrophilia in degenerating and "reactive" neurons, but there is every reason to pay more attention to this subject. One can expect that a continuing and concerted effort will result in a rational understanding of the molecular biological and physicochemical events that fortuitously provide the basis for the selective impregnation of degenerating neuronal elements. This knowledge can be the basis for the development of even more reliable and simple, yet sensitive, silver methods suited for neurotoxic risk assessment on a large scale.

Animals↗
PubMed1979

[Application to the study of connections in the CNS of the retrograde axonal transport of an iron-dextran complex].

The retrograde axonal transport of an iron-dextran complex was observed in neurons of the substantia nigra and of the intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus, after previous injection into the striatum. The histochemical demonstration of iron is simple and rapid, and can be combined with that of horseradish peroxidase, under precise conditions in the sequence of reactions. The iron-dextran complex revealed to be a valuable material for neuronal connectivity studies in the central nervous system.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

The biological clock: the bodyguard of temporal homeostasis.

In order for any organism to function properly, it is crucial that it be table to control the timing of its biological functions. An internal biological clock, located, in mammals, in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus (SCN), therefore carefully guards this temporal homeostasis by delivering its message of time throughout the body. In view of the large variety of body functions (behavioral, physiological, and endocrine) as well as the large variety in their preferred time of main activity along the light:dark cycle, it seems logical to envision different means of time distribution by the SCN. In the present review, we propose that even though it presents a unimodal circadian rhythm of general electrical and metabolic activity, the SCN seems to use several sorts of output connections that are active at different times along the light:dark cycle to control the rhythmic expression of different body functions. Although the SCN is suggested to use diffusion of synchronizing factors in the rhythmic control of behavioral functions, it also needs neuronal connections for the control of endocrine functions. The distribution of the time-of-day message to neuroendocrine systems is either directly onto endocrine neurons or via intermediate neurons located in specific SCN targets. In addition, the SCN uses its connections with the autonomic nervous system for spreading its time-of-day message, either by setting the sensitivity of endocrine glands (i.e., thyroid, adrenal, ovary) or by directly controlling an endocrine output (i.e., melatonin synthesis). Moreover, the SCN seems to use different neurotransmitters released at different times along the light:dark cycle for each of the different connection types presented. Clearly, the temporal homeostasis of endocrine functions results from a diverse set of biological clock outputs.

Animals↗
PubMed1982

Types of neurons and synaptic connections at hypostome-tentacle junctions in Hydra.

Using transmission electron microscopy of thin sections we have examined neuronal concentrations at hypostome-tentacle junctions in Hydra littoralis. A total of 194 ganglion cells were counted in 587 serial thin sections of a single hypostome-tentacle junction. We found two distinct types of ganglion cells: those with and those lacking stereocilia. The majority of the neurons observed lacked stereocilia; in a single hypostome-tentacle junction only 37% of the ganglion cells possessed a kinocilium surrounded by rodlike stereocilia. Most of the ganglion cells (55%) were clustered together in the oral or upper epidermis of the hypostome-tentacle junction: Nineteen percent were in the lateral and 26% in the aboral or lower epidermis. The two types of ganglion cells did not differ significantly in their distribution. Both types of ganglion cell had synaptic contacts with other neurons and with epitheliomuscular cells. More than 85% of the neuroneuronal and 61% of the neuroepitheliomuscular cell synapses were located in the oral epidermis of a hypostome-tentacle junction. In addition, two-way chemical synapses and a gap junction between neurons were observed at hypostome-tentacle junctions. Our morphological evidence of synaptic connectivity in neuronal clusters at hypostome-tentacle junctions suggests that primitive ganglia are present in Hydra.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

[Brain and consciousness].

The philosophical and biological concepts of consciousness are briefly reviewed, from Aristoteles to Descartes to the modern neurobiologist of the last 15 years. The CRICK's corticothalamic integration view, the Edelman's primary and higher order consciousness concept as well as the Edelman and Tononi's dynamic core concept were discussed. Then the corticothalamic resonance theory by Llinás was reported. Central to Llinás's theory is the existence of electrical intrinsic properties of neurones in the central nervous system that allows them to oscillate at different frequencies and if the membrane properties are suitable also to resonate at specific frequencies. From this oscillation and the neuronal connectivity result the corticothalamic dynamic loops specific and non specific. The dynamic corticothalamic loop of the specific thalamic nuclei connect directly as well as through the inhibitory interneurones in layer 4, with the pyramids in layer 5 and 6. The pyramids's rhythmic discharge excite the thalamic specific neurones and indirectly through the reticular neurones a rebound burst is also generated in the specific relay neurones. The oscillatory properties of cortical inhibitory interneurones initiates the action of the recurrent circuit whose function is to inform the cerebral cortex of the content of the sensory pathways. On the other side, the thalamocortical resonant loops of the non especific nuclei, particularly the intralaminar, connect with theapical dendrites of layer 1 pyramids whose discharge go to the thalamic relay neurones directly and through the reticular nucleus. The clinical and MEG data are consistent with the suggestion that the intralaminar nucleus works as providing the binding signal to the sensory specif le information conveyed by the specific pathways. In this way the non specific corticothalamic loop would act as the conjunction mechanism along the dendritic apical shaft with the specific sensory information. The specific loop will give the content and the non specific loop the context. Conciousness would be the final result of the summation of specific and non specific 40 Hz activity conveyed by the resonant corticothalamic loops.

Arousal↗
PubMed1984

Axonal projections of mechanosensory neurons in the connectives and peripheral nerves of the leech, Haemopis marmorata.

The axonal projections of the seven mechanosensory neurons in the connectives and peripheral nerves were examined by horseradish peroxidase (HRP) injections. In the connective the closely functionally related mechanosensory neurons travel in two bilaterally symmetrical regions, which comprise less than 10% of the connective's cross-sectional area. This grouping may reflect the similar functional properties and synaptic connections of the cells. Serial sections through the neuropil-connective junction zone showed that the organization of the axons is independent of glial fasciculation. Fascicles are not rigid structures; they were found to part and fuse in a seemingly random manner. The glial cell seems therefore to have only a supportive structural function and not to play any role in axonal guidance or to define any specific nerve fascicles in the leech. The projections of the mechanosensory cells in the peripheral roots were not as stereotyped as in the connective. However, examination of the branching of the medial and lateral P cells in the posterior root showed that the roots are highly structured and that some axons may be confined to tracts which have specific positions related to the branching of the root. The possible role of the P cells in pioneering these tracts is discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Ontogeny of the tectorotundal pathway in chicks (Gallus gallus): birthdating and pathway tracing study.

The avian tectorotundal system has been suggested as a homologue of the mammalian colliculopulvinar system. In the tectorotundal system, neurons of the stratum griseum centrale (SGC) of the optic tectum send their axons bilaterally to the nucleus rotundus (Rt). In transit to the Rt, the axons of the SGC neurons collateralize in the nuclei posteroventralis thalami (PV), subpretectalis (SP), and interstitiopretectosubpretectalis (IPS) of the tectothalamic tract (TT). The current study used birthdating and pathway-tracing methods to investigate the neurogenesis and time course of neuronal connections of the tectorotundal pathway in chicks during embryogenesis. By using tritiated thymidine autoradiography, we observed that the SGC neurons of the tectum were generated by embryonic days 3.0-5.5 (E3.0-E5.5), the Rt by E3.5-E5.0, and the nuclei of TT by E3.5-4.5. To trace the tectorotundal pathway, we injected cholera toxin B subunit (CTb) into the tectum, and the CTb-like immunoreactivity was examined. By E4.5-E5.5, some CTb-like immunoreactive (CTb-LI) axons terminated in the ipsilateral SP/IPS. By E6.0-E6.5, CTb-LI axon bundles were seen ipsilaterally in the TT. Increased numbers of labeled axons were seen terminating in the SP/IPS. By E7.0-E7.5, heavily labeled axons in the TT were observed with diffuse terminals in areas ventral to the presumptive Rt and PV. By E7.5-E8.0, the tectal axons innervated the ipsilateral Rt, in which some of the collaterals crossed the midline to the contralateral diencephalon. The crossed tectorotundal projection was seen first by E8.0-E8.5. Also, during this stage, a few CTb-LI collaterals terminated in the contralateral SP/IPS. Between E10 and E13, the pattern of bilateral tectorotundal projections became more regionalized, whereas labeling continued to increase in the SP/IPS. At E16, the labeling pattern of all tectorecipient structures resembled that of the hatchling. The current study revealed the temporal order of development of the tectorotundal pathway during embryogenesis. The SGC cells first innervate ipsilaterally the SP/IPS and then the Rt/PV. The schedule of the crossed tectorotundal connections coincides with the schedule of tectal projections onto the contralateral intrinsic nuclei of the TT. We conclude that E8.0 (+/- E0.5) is a critical stage for the development of the tectofugal pathway. Moreover, the current study provides important insights into the relative ontogeny of the mammalian tectofugal pathway.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

A role for glial cells in activity-dependent central nervous plasticity? Review and hypothesis.

Activity-dependent plasticity relies on changes in neuronal transmission that are controlled by coincidence or noncoincidence of presynaptic and postsynaptic activity. These changes may rely on modulation of neural transmission or on structural changes in neuronal circuitry. The present overview summarizes experimental data that support the involvement of glial cells in central nervous activity-dependent plasticity. A role for glial cells in plastic changes of synaptic transmission may be based on modulation of transmitter uptake or on regulation of the extracellular ion composition. Both mechanisms can be initiated via neuronal-glial information transfer by potassium ions, transmitters, or other diffusible factor originating from active neurons. In addition, the importance of changes in neuronal circuitry in many model systems of activity-dependent plasticity is summarized. Structural changes in neuronal connectivity can be influenced or mediated by glial cells via release of growth or growth permissive factors on neuronal activation, and by active displacement and subsequent elimination of axonal boutons. A unifying hypothesis that integrates these possibilities into a model of activity-dependent plasticity is proposed. In this model glial cells interact with neurons to establish plastic changes; while glial cells have a global effect on plasticity, neuronal mechanisms underlie the induction and local specificity of the plastic change. The proposed hypothesis not only explains conventional findings on activity-dependent plastic changes, but offers an intriguing possibility to explain several paradoxical findings from studies on CNS plasticity that are not yet fully understood. Although the accumulated data seem to support the proposed role for glial cells in plasticity, it has to be emphasized that several steps in the proposed cascades of events require further detailed investigation, and several "missing links" have to be addressed by experimental work. Because of the increasing evidence for glial heterogeneity (for review see Wilkin et al., 1990) it seems to be of great importance to relate findings on glial populations to the developmental stage and topographical origin of the studied cells. The present overview is intended to serve as a guideline for future studies and to expand the view of "neuro" physiologists interested in activity-dependent plasticity. Key questions that have to be addressed relate to the mechanisms of release of growth and growth-permissive factors from glial cells and neuronal-glial information transfer. It is said that every complex problem has a simple, logical, wrong solution. Future studies will reveal the contribution of the proposed simple and logical solution to the understanding of central nervous plasticity.

Adaptation, Physiological↗