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PubMed1991

[Sex behavior and knowledge about AIDS among students].

604 out of 700 students (330 females, 274 males; mean age 23.3 [19-64] years) completed a questionnaire, which was handed out by their teachers and consisted of 26 questions concerning sexual practices and knowledge about AIDS. 285 subjects were studying natural sciences, 134 arts and 185 medicine. There were significant differences between the sexes (P less than 0.01) in drug use (alcohol, cannabis), use of condoms, promiscuity and with respect to discussion of AIDS. Fewer females than males said that they occasionally used intoxicants before sex (14% vs 25%). Women also used condoms less frequently than men (23% vs 44%), although more insisted on their use if their partner declined (68% vs 58%). 55% of the men and 72% of the women were living within a stable relationship. More women (70%) than men (56%) said they would discuss AIDS before having sex with a new partner. There were significant differences between students from individual disciplines (P less than 0.01) with regard to their knowledge, use of condoms, promiscuity, and discussion of AIDS: arts students were less well informed and changed sexual partners more frequently. The same was true of students more than 30 years old. There are important differences between students with regard to their knowledge about AIDS and sexual behaviour risk factors. Educational programmes need to take this fact into account.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed2005

A standard approach to measurement uncertainties for scientists and engineers in medicine.

The critical nature of health care demands high performance levels from medical equipment. To ensure these performance levels are maintained, medical physicists and biomedical engineers conduct a range of measurements on equipment during acceptance testing and on-going quality assurance programs. Wherever there are measurements, there are measurement uncertainties with potential conflicts between the measurements made by installers, owners and occasionally regulators. Prior to 1993, various methods were used to calculate and report measurement uncertainties. In 1993, the International Organization for Standardization published the Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM). The document was jointly published with six international organizations principally involved in measurements and standards. The GUM is regarded as an international benchmark on how measurement uncertainty should be calculated and reported. Despite the critical nature of these measurements, there has not been widespread use of the GUM by medical physicists and biomedical engineers. This may be due to the complexity of the GUM. Some organisations have published guidance on the GUM tailored to specific measurement disciplines. This paper presents the philosophy behind the GUM, and demonstrates, with a medical physics measurement example, how the GUM recommends uncertainties be calculated and reported.

Algorithms↗
PubMed1998

Patients' views of quality of life: transforming the knowledge base of nursing.

Nurses in advanced practice roles are leaders of the transformative process that will further define the discipline of nursing as a human science of lived experience. Essential to the transformation is a change in nursing's knowledge base, a change that defines practice and research as participative, open, and quality enhancing. To demonstrate the transformation of knowledge in practice, the authors present findings from a qualitative research study guided by the nursing theory called human becoming. The purpose of the study was to enhance understanding of quality of life for patients receiving acute psychiatric care. A descriptive exploratory design was used to guide data gathering and analysis of 24 people. Findings are presented in themes that represent quality-of-life issues, including feelings of loss and shifting value priorities, the complex nature of relationships that ease and upset, and the hopes that fuel the intense struggle to go on living. Directions for practice and research are suggested.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

The integration of neurology, psychiatry, and neuroscience in the 21st century.

OBJECTIVE: This article examines the historical basis for the divergence of neurology and psychiatry over the past century and discusses prospects for a rapprochement and potential convergence of the two specialties in the next century. METHOD: The author presents a brief historical overview of developments in neurology and psychiatry from the late 19th century. The histories of research and prevailing scientific opinion on two neuropsychiatric disorders, Alzheimer's disease and Tourette's syndrome, are compared to illustrate the effects of viewing a disease process from, respectively, the neurologic/organic and psychiatric/functional perspectives. RESULTS: Research on Alzheimer's disease, because of its early pathologic demonstration, moved rapidly toward identification of associated synaptic abnormalities and genetic mutations. In Tourette's syndrome, the absence of evident brain pathology resulted in vacillation between organic and functional explanations and persistent controversy about the nature of the illness. CONCLUSIONS: Neurology and psychiatry have, for much of the past century, been separated by an artificial wall created by the divergence of their philosophical approaches and research and treatment methods. Scientific advances in recent decades have made it clear that this separation is arbitrary and counterproductive. Neurologic and psychiatric research are moving closer together in the tools they use, the questions they ask, and the theoretical frameworks they employ. The interests of neurology and psychiatry converge within the framework of modern neuroscience. Further progress in understanding brain diseases and behavior demands fuller collaboration and integration of these fields. Leaders in academic medicine and science must work to break down the barriers between disciplines.

Alzheimer Disease↗
PubMed1990

The economics of inequality in health: a bibliography.

Economists have until recently taken a back-seat in the debate on inequality and health, despite various suggestions that economic science has much to contribute to the clarification of issues surrounding that polemic. This article presents a bibliography of English-language sources which explicitly consider the economics of inequality in the health domain or present methods which might suitably inform the debate. Initially, an introductory guide to the literature is presented, followed by the bibliography itself. This second section is divided into four distinct parts in order to facilitate use: works of a general economic nature, including those on the measurement and extent of inequality; discussions of normative aspects of equity in health; positive analyses drawing on models of the demand for health and medical care; and a final sub-section that groups works from other disciplines which are indispensable background for future work by economists.

Cross-Cultural Comparison↗
PubMed1967

The spread of Western science. A three-stage model describes the introduction of modern science into any non-European nation.

There is no need to summarize the features of this simplified model, which describes the manner in which modern science was transmitted to the lands beyond Western Europe. The graph of Fig. 1 and the examples drawn from science in various lands should have made them clear. It may be in order, however, to reiterate that there is nothing about the phases of my model that is cosmically or metaphysically necessary. I am satisfied if my attempt will interest others to go beyond my crude analysis and make a systematic investigation of the diffusion of Western science throughout the world. Such an investigation would include a comparative appraisal of the development of science in different national, cultural, and social settings and would mark the beginnings of truly comparative studies in the history and sociology of science. The present lack of comparative studies in these disciplines can be attributed to the widespread belief that science is strictly an international endeavor. In one sense this is true. As Sir Isaac Newton remarked in his Principia (49), "the descent of stones in Europe and in America" must both be explained by one set of physical laws. Yet, we cannot ignore the peculiar environment in which members of a national group of scientists are trained and carry on their research. While I do not hold with the Nazi theorists that science is a direct reflection of the racial or national spirit (50), neither do I accept Chekhov's dictum (51) that "there is no national science just as there is no national multiplication table. . . ." In emphasizing the international nature of scientific inquiry we have forgotten that science exists in a local social setting. If that setting does not decisively mold the conceptual growth of science, it can at least affect the number and types of individuals who are free to participate in the internal development of science. Perhaps the effect is more profound; only future scholarship can determine the depth of its influence.

Acculturation↗
PubMed2002

Tracking the harmonic response of magnetically-soft sensors for wireless temperature, stress, and corrosive monitoring.

This paper describes the application of magnetically-soft ribbon-like sensors for measurement of temperature and stress, as well as corrosive monitoring, based upon changes in the amplitudes of the higher-order harmonics generated by the sensors in response to a magnetic interrogation signal. The sensors operate independently of mass loading, and so can be placed or rigidly embedded inside nonmetallic, opaque structures such as concrete or plastic. The passive harmonic-based sensor is remotely monitored through a single coplanar interrogation and detection coil. Effects due to the relative location of the sensor are eliminated by tracking harmonic amplitude ratios, thereby, enabling wide area monitoring. The wireless, passive, mass loading independent nature of the described sensor platform makes it ideally suited for long-term structural monitoring applications, such as measurement of temperature and stress inside concrete structures. A theoretical model is presented to explain the origin and behavior of the higher-order harmonics in response to temperature and stress.

Corrosion↗
PubMed2006

Approaches for biological and biomimetic energy conversion.

This article highlights areas of research at the interface of nanotechnology, the physical sciences, and biology that are related to energy conversion: specifically, those related to photovoltaic applications. Although much ongoing work is seeking to understand basic processes of photosynthesis and chemical conversion, such as light harvesting, electron transfer, and ion transport, application of this knowledge to the development of fully synthetic and/or hybrid devices is still in its infancy. To develop systems that produce energy in an efficient manner, it is important both to understand the biological mechanisms of energy flow for optimization of primary structure and to appreciate the roles of architecture and assembly. Whether devices are completely synthetic and mimic biological processes or devices use natural biomolecules, much of the research for future power systems will happen at the intersection of disciplines.

Biology↗
PubMed2002

Doing qualitative research in general practice: methodological utility and engagement.

General practice uses an eclectic range of research methodology. This includes increasing reliance upon qualitative research methods. There seem to be two distinct treatments of qualitative research within primary care and, in particular, within general practice research. The first is characterized by a purely utilitarian and technical focus, using a qualitative method because it is the most appropriate means of realizing the aims of the research, while the second is characterized by in-depth engagement with the philosophical and paradigmatic aspects of qualitative methodology. In-depth engagement with methodology and theory, and theory building, is an important aspect of masterate and doctoral research within social sciences such as education and anthropology, and in the discipline of nursing, but has not been a feature of qualitative research in medicine. A practical difficulty encountered within postgraduate programmes such as the one in which the author teaches is that when innovative qualitative techniques are used by GPs in their postgraduate research dissertations and theses, it is often beyond GP examiners' own knowledge and experience, yet it fails to measure up to standards established in social sciences, particularly in sociology and anthropology where in-depth reflexive engagement with the theory and philosophy of qualitative methodology is expected. This paper suggests that the value of in-depth engagement with methodology when conducting qualitative research results in creative and innovative ways of conducting research that are consonant with the nature of general practice itself, and strengthens research findings. Therefore, as teachers of research methods and supervisors of research theses, it is important to encourage students conducting qualitative research to engage fully with theoretical and methodological issues.

Family Practice↗
PubMed1996

Toward a new outlook on primate learning and behavior: complex learning and emergent processes in comparative perspective.

Primate research of the 20th century has established the validity of Darwin's postulation of psychological as well as biological continuity between humans and other primates, notably the great apes. Its data make clear that Descartes' view of animals as unfeeling "beast-machines" is invalid and should be discarded. Traditional behavioristic frameworks--that emphasize the concepts of stimulus, response, and reinforcement and an "empty-organism" psychology--are in need of major revisions. Revised frameworks should incorporate the fact that, in contrast to the lifeless databases of the "hard" sciences, the database of psychology entails properties novel to life and its attendant phenomena. The contributions of research this century, achieved by field and laboratory researchers from around the world, have been substantial--indeed revolutionary. It is time to celebrate the progress of our field, to anticipate its significance, and to emphasize conservation of primates in their natural habitats.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Unity of knowledge in the advancement of nursing knowledge.

During the past 20 years, we have witnessed an explosion in nursing knowledge providing the discipline with diverse and multifaceted theoretical frameworks and paradigms. One knowledge theme that pervades the dialogue in the scholarly literature is that of multiple ways of knowing. With the acknowledgement that the fundamental nature of nursing knowledge is grounded in the understanding of human nature and its response to its environment, comes an imperative for a consilience of knowledge. The purpose of this article is to present such a unified worldview by articulating a vision of nursing knowledge, a meaning of unity of knowledge, and a challenge to the discipline to embrace inclusive rather than exclusive ways of knowing.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗
PubMed1992

The return of the repressed. Psychology's problematic relations with psychoanalysis, 1909-1960.

When psychoanalysis first arrived in the United States, most psychologists ignored it. By the 1920s, however, psychoanalysis had so captured the public imagination that it threatened to eclipse experimental psychology entirely. This article analyzes the complex nature of this threat and the myriad ways that psychologists responded to it. Because psychoanalysis entailed precisely the sort of radical subjectivity that psychologists had renounced as unscientific, core assumptions about the meaning of science were at stake. Psychologists' initial response was to retreat into positivism, thereby further limiting psychology's relevance and scope. By the 1950s, a new strategy had emerged: Psychoanalytic concepts would be put to experimental test, and those that qualified as "scientific" would be retained. This reinstated psychologists as arbiters of the mental world and restored "objective" criteria as the basis for making claims. A later tactic--co-opting psychoanalytic concepts into mainstream psychology--had the ironic effect of helping make psychology a more flexible and broad-based discipline.

History, 19th Century↗
PubMed1999

[History of the Société Française de Neurologie: 1899-1974].

The "Société de Neurologie de Paris", started by 17 founding members all of whom with the exception of Dejerine were students of Charcot, helds its inaugural session on 6th July 1899. It became the "Société Française de Neurologie" in 1949. Its history is intertwined with that of neurology itself, to whose progress it greatly contributed through the work presented at its monthly sessions and collated in the Revue Neurologique, "the official organ for its publications". The "Réunions Neurologiques Internationales", which began in 1920, increased its prestige and widened its public. Down the years they have borne witness to the preoccupations of the day, reflecting the development of neurology and the prodigious changes that it has undergone. Born under the sign of the anatomico-clinical method, the Society has unceasingly transformed itself in keeping with the evolving science, taking on board all the latest advances in medicine and biology and their associated techniques. It has given birth to neurosurgery, clinical neurophysiology and neuroradiology. The multiplicity of new techniques governing progress in the discipline threatened to have an adverse effect on the integrity of the Society. However, it is within the context of the Society that the wide range of neurosciences can find the federating influence they need to take their place within the corpus of neurology. The history of the Society has also reflected the century through which it has lived, a century which has proved one of the most tragic in the history of the western world. It has suffered its many vicissitudes, which have been fundamental in determining the nature of its work and its sphere of influence.

France↗
PubMed1981

[Non-statistical biomathematics: opinions, perspectives, problems].

By way of tracing the position of biomathematics and its main subjects a discussion is given of the mutual relations between the branches of natural sciences and mathematics within the hierarchically structured building of science. The general possibilities of a mathematical expressing and description of the biological features "complexity", "variability", and "discontinuity" and the limits are shown of validity of mathematical formulations in the field of biology. To this point representative opinions of research workers are quoted. The only direct ways of application of mathematics in biology seems to be the treatment of "variability" by statistical biomathematical means which offers the mathematical services in the design of experiments as well as in the quantitative-descriptive evaluation of experimental results. Aside from these ways a direct mathematical approach to biology is thought of being questionable because of the large differences between the levels of abstraction on which these two disciplines work. But the thesis is stated and supported that biophysics and biocybernetics as mediators provide an appropriate approach of the mathematics to such biological problems which arise from "complexity" and from "discontinuity". The kind of biomathematical tools, the goal of a biomathematical analysis, and the results of such an analysis get their meaning from the biophysical or biocybernetical modelling in which they are embedded. Example of working out of biomathematical methods and of application these methods are added.

Biometry↗
PubMed2000

Healing as appreciating wholeness.

The "clinicalization" of human experience by the health care disciplines has been instrumental in denying important facets of human life and not fully accounting for the essence and wholeness of experience. A unitary conceptualization of healing as appreciating wholeness is proposed. Appreciating is actualized through a praxis approach used for research and practice--unitary pattern appreciation--created to bring the theoretical principles of unitary science into practical reality. It is essentially a praxis for exploration of the wholeness within human/environmental pattern. Healing is conceptualized as the realization, knowledge, and appreciation of the inherent wholeness in life that elucidates prospects of clarified understanding and opportunities for action. The essential features of the process of pattern appreciation are a synoptic stance toward pattern information, a participatory engagement with people in the exploration of wholeness, and the transformative nature of the process that illuminates the possibilities in wholeness. A case demonstrates the nature of the unitary pattern appreciation process and its healing qualities.

Art Therapy↗
PubMed1988

The influence of German idealistic morphology on the development of C.J. van der Klaauw's epistemology.

Notwithstanding the general rise of experimental disciplines in biology in the first decades of our century, in Germany and in the Netherlands the interest in the idealistic morphological tradition flourished, and compensated for a reductionistic causal approach to natural phenomena. This article analyses the influence of the German idealistic morphologists W. Lubosch and A. Meyer on the development of C.J. van der Klaauw's epistemology. It discusses the gradual incorporation of non-causal principles into van der Klaauw's concept of biology. Van der Klaauw's epistemological concept of holistic biology was shaped in a critical confrontation with German idealistic morphology, and his early considerations can be interpreted as a direct impulse towards the development of his theory of functional components. Van der Klaauw's theories, being an alternative to the reductionistic experimental sciences, were among the causes of the fact that in the first half of our century biology in the Netherlands took a course deviating from the development of biology in the Anglo-American countries.

Anatomy↗
PubMed2005

[Today's meaning of classical authors of political thinking].

How can classical political authors be actualised? The question is asked in a discipline which is founded in old traditions: the political science. One of its great matters is the history of political ideas. Classic authors are treated in many books, but they are viewed in different perspectives; colleagues do not agree with shining and bad examples. For actualising classic we have to go a methodically reflected way: historic not historicistic, with sensibility for classic and christian norms without dogmatism or scepticism. Searching the permanent problems we try to translate the original concepts of the classic authors carefully in our time. For demonstrating our method of actualising, we choose the French classical author Montesquieu. His famous concept of division of powers is misunderstood as a "liberal" mechanism which works in itself in favour of freedom (such as Kant made work a "natural mechanism" in a people of devils in favour of their legality); in reality Montesquieu acknoledges that constitutional und organisational work cannot stabilise themselves but must be found in social character and in human virtues.

France↗
PubMed1996

Preventing academic medical center from becoming an oxymoron.

Many academic medical institutions are facing serious threats to their survival today as changes in the organization and financing of health care delivery and reductions in federal support create damaging pressures. In order for Americans to continue to have the best health care in the world, academic medicine and its crucial contributions of medical education, training, and research must receive adequate support. The author maintains that it is up to the Association of American Medical Colleges and associated organizations to ensure that this message is heard and recognized and to seek an all-payer approach that would support the costs associated with medical education and training and would allow teaching hospitals to compete on a level playing field with non-teaching hospitals. Academic medical institutions must face painful transformations while maintaining their academic missions; the author discusses the nature of these transformations and missions, particularly research, and outlines useful strategies to maintain these missions, such as establishing a centralized approach to curriculum and having clinical and basic science faculty form alliances to address common research problems and secure more research funding. He concludes that many of the structural and other changes that academic medicine's institutions must make may result in true improvements and help maintain the validity of the term academic medical center in the future.

Academic Medical Centers↗