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At least 523 records · Page 29Linked to original sources
PubMed2005

Hydrodynamic simulation (computational fluid dynamics) of asymmetrically positioned tablets in the paddle dissolution apparatus: impact on dissolution rate and variability.

The aim of this work was to investigate the dissolution rate from both the curved and planar surfaces of cylindrical compacts of benzoic acid, which were placed centrally and non-centrally at the base of the vessel of the paddle dissolution apparatus. The effect of fixing the compacts to a particular position on the variability of dissolution results was also examined. In addition, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was used to simulate fluid flow around compacts in the different positions in the vessel, and the relationship between the local hydrodynamics in the region of the compacts and the dissolution rate determined. The dissolution rate was found to increase from the centre position to the off-centre positions for each surface examined. There was a corresponding increase in maximum fluid velocities calculated from the CFD fluid flow simulations at a fixed distance from the compact. There was less variability in dissolution from compacts fixed to any of the positions compared with those that were not fixed. Fluid flow around compacts in different positions could be successfully modelled, and hydrodynamic variability examined, using CFD. The effect of asymmetric fluid flow was evident visually from the change in shape of the eroded compacts.

Benzoic Acid↗
PubMed1992

CSF hydrodynamics in idiopathic intracranial hypertension: a long-term study.

To examine CSF hydrodynamics, we studied 16 patients with idiopathic intracranial hypertension and 45 control subjects with a constant-pressure infusion method. Fifteen patients had 155 examinations up to 15 years after the onset of disease. In most patients, the disturbances of CSF hydrodynamics persisted for many years. We identified at least two mechanisms for the development of the increased CSF pressure: a rise of sagittal sinus pressure, probably explained by extracellular edema causing partial compression of the major venous sinus (type 1), or a low conductance with a compensatory increase in CSF pressure in order to sustain the bulk flow (type 2).

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Hydrodynamic stability of swimming in ostraciid fishes: role of the carapace in the smooth trunkfish Lactophrys triqueter (Teleostei: Ostraciidae).

The hydrodynamic bases for the stability of locomotory motions in fishes are poorly understood, even for those fishes, such as the rigid-bodied smooth trunkfish Lactophrys triqueter, that exhibit unusually small amplitude recoil movements during rectilinear swimming. We have studied the role played by the bony carapace of the smooth trunkfish in generating trimming forces that self-correct for instabilities. The flow patterns, forces and moments on and around anatomically exact, smooth trunkfish models positioned at both pitching and yawing angles of attack were investigated using three methods: digital particle image velocimetry (DPIV), pressure distribution measurements, and force balance measurements. Models positioned at various pitching angles of attack within a flow tunnel produced well-developed counter-rotating vortices along the ventro-lateral keels. The vortices developed first at the anterior edges of the ventro-lateral keels, grew posteriorly along the carapace, and reached maximum circulation at the posterior edge of the carapace. The vortical flow increased in strength as pitching angles of attack deviated from 0 degrees, and was located above the keels at positive angles of attack and below them at negative angles of attack. Variation of yawing angles of attack resulted in prominent dorsal and ventral vortices developing at far-field locations of the carapace; far-field vortices intensified posteriorly and as angles of attack deviated from 0 degrees. Pressure distribution results were consistent with the DPIV findings, with areas of low pressure correlating well with regions of attached, concentrated vorticity. Lift coefficients of boxfish models were similar to lift coefficients of delta wings, devices that also generate lift through vortex generation. Furthermore, nose-down and nose-up pitching moments about the center of mass were detected at positive and negative pitching angles of attack, respectively. The three complementary experimental approaches all indicate that the carapace of the smooth trunkfish effectively generates self-correcting forces for pitching and yawing motions--a characteristic that is advantageous for the highly variable velocity fields experienced by trunkfish in their complex aquatic environment. All important morphological features of the carapace contribute to producing the hydrodynamic stability of swimming trajectories in this species.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

The ontogenetic scaling of hydrodynamics and swimming performance in jellyfish (Aurelia aurita).

It is not well understood how ontogenetic changes in the motion and morphology of aquatic animals influence the performance of swimming. The goals of the present study were to understand how changes in size, shape and behavior affect the hydrodynamics of jet propulsion in the jellyfish Aurelia aurita and to explore how such changes affect the ontogenetic scaling of swimming speed and cost of transport. We measured the kinematics of jellyfish swimming from video recordings and simulated the hydrodynamics of swimming with two computational models that calculated thrust generation by paddle and jet mechanisms. Our results suggest that thrust is generated primarily by jetting and that there is negligible thrust generation by paddling. We examined how fluid forces scaled with body mass using the jet model. Despite an ontogenetic increase in the range of motion by the bell diameter and a decrease in the height-to-diameter ratio, we found that thrust and acceleration reaction scaled with body mass as predicted by kinematic similarity. However, jellyfish decreased their pulse frequency with growth, and speed consequently scaled at a lower exponential rate than predicted by kinematic similarity. Model simulations suggest that the allometric growth in Aurelia results in swimming that is slower, but more energetically economical, than isometric growth with a prolate bell shape. The decrease in pulse frequency over ontogeny allows large Aurelia medusae to avoid a high cost of transport but generates slower swimming than if they maintained a high pulse frequency. Our findings suggest that ontogenetic change in the height-to-diameter ratio and pulse frequency of Aurelia results in swimming that is relatively moderate in speed but is energetically economical.

Acceleration↗
PubMed2004

The hydrodynamics of eel swimming: I. Wake structure.

Eels undulate a larger portion of their bodies while swimming than many other fishes, but the hydrodynamic consequences of this swimming mode are poorly understood. In this study, we examine in detail the hydrodynamics of American eels (Anguilla rostrata) swimming steadily at 1.4 L s(-1) and compare them with previous results from other fishes. We performed high-resolution particle image velocimetry (PIV) to quantify the wake structure, measure the swimming efficiency, and force and power output. The wake consists of jets of fluid that point almost directly laterally, separated by an unstable shear layer that rolls up into two or more vortices over time. Previously, the wake of swimming eels was hypothesized to consist of unlinked vortex rings, resulting from a phase offset between vorticity distributed along the body and vorticity shed at the tail. Our high-resolution flow data suggest that the body anterior to the tail tip produces relatively low vorticity, and instead the wake structure results from the instability of the shear layers separating the lateral jets, reflecting pulses of high vorticity shed at the tail tip. We compare the wake structure to large-amplitude elongated body theory and to a previous computational fluid dynamic model and note several discrepancies between the models and the measured values. The wake of steadily swimming eels differs substantially in structure from the wake of previously studied carangiform fishes in that it lacks any significant downstream flow, previously interpreted as signifying thrust. We infer that the lack of downstream flow results from a spatial and temporal balance of momentum removal (drag) and thrust generated along the body, due to the relatively uniform shape of eels. Carangiform swimmers typically have a narrow caudal peduncle, which probably allows them to separate thrust from drag both spatially and temporally. Eels seem to lack this separation, which may explain why they produce a wake with little downstream momentum while carangiform swimmers produce a wake with a clear thrust signature.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2004

Models of hydrodynamic flow in the bowhead whale filter feeding apparatus.

Anatomical and behavioral analyses suggest that the filtration mechanism of bowhead and right whales (Balaenidae) is driven by hydrodynamic as well as ram hydraulic pressures. Complementary models were devised to investigate biomechanical aspects of water flow in the buccal cavity of the bowhead whale Balaena mysticetus during continuous filter feeding. A mathematical model was created to test and quantify water flow predictions with steady state hydromechanical equations; a physical model of the bowhead mouth (approximately 1/15 scale) was constructed to visualize flow processes. Both models rely on morphometric data obtained from whales harvested by Inupiat Eskimos for subsistence purposes along with information on foraging ecology (locomotor velocity, gape, etc.). Results indicate that unique features of balaenid oral construction and function (e.g. subrostral gap, orolabial sulcus, curvature of baleen, extensive mandibular rotation and lingual mobility) not only permit steady, unidirectional flow of water through the mouth, but also establish Bernoulli and Venturi effects during feeding. These hydrodynamic conditions allow balaenids to improve filtering efficiency and avoid creation of an anterior compressive wave (by increasing flow velocity and thereby reducing pressure) so that they may capture elusive prey even at slow swimming speeds.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Locomotor function of the dorsal fin in rainbow trout: kinematic patterns and hydrodynamic forces.

In this study, we examine the kinematics and hydrodynamics of the soft dorsal fin in a representative basal teleost, the rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), during steady rectilinear locomotion at 0.5-2.0 body lengths (L) s(-1) and during maneuvering. During steady swimming, dorsal fin height and sweep amplitude decrease with increasing speed. The dorsal fin wake, as viewed within a horizontal plane, consists of paired vortices on each side of the body (0.5 L s(-1)) or nearly linearly arrayed vortex centers above the body (1.0 L s(-1)) with central jet flows directed predominately laterally (lateral:thrust force ratio = 5-6). At 2.0 L s(-1), the dorsal fin is no longer recruited to add momentum to the wake. This pattern of decreasing involvement of the trout dorsal fin in thrust production with increasing speed contrasts with the results of our previous study of the soft dorsal fin of sunfish (Lepomis), which is hydrodynamically inactive at low speed and sheds a propulsive vortex wake at higher speed. Yawing maneuvers by trout involve unilateral production of a single vortex ring by the dorsal fin with a strong jet flow oriented almost directly laterally. During steady swimming, interception by the tail of the dorsal fin's vortical wake and the adipose fin's non-vortical (drag) wake is hypothesized as a mechanism for enhancing tail thrust. This study provides the first experimental evidence that the plesiomorphic soft dorsal fin of ray-finned fishes acts as an ancillary force generator during axial locomotion. We suggest that the distinction often made between median and paired fin (MPF) propulsion and body and caudal fin (BCF) propulsion in fishes obscures the important role of multiple propulsors acting in a coordinated fashion. Using a combination of anterior median fin oscillation and axial undulation, without continuous paired fin excursions, trout employ an ;M-BCF' gait during steady swimming. The primarily lateral orientation of dorsal fin force in trout induces corresponding roll and yaw moments, which must be countered by forces from the caudal, anal and paired fins. Locomotion in trout therefore involves the simultaneous active use of multiple fins, presumably to maintain body stability in the face of environmental perturbations.

Animal Structures↗
PubMed2006

Hydrodynamic consequences of flexural stiffness and buoyancy for seaweeds: a study using physical models.

An upright posture in the water column may expose benthic marine organisms to faster flow higher in the water column than near the substratum, potentially increasing rates of mass exchange while also exposing the organisms to higher hydrodynamic forces. Benthic organisms maintain upright postures in the water column by one of two mechanisms, stiffness or buoyancy. Turbinaria ornata is a tropical macroalga that uses either buoyancy or flexural stiffness (EI), depending on its flow habitat. This study used physical models of T. ornata to compare the effect of different magnitudes of these two mechanisms on relative water velocity and hydrodynamic forces in both unidirectional and wavy flow. Models of the alga were constructed to span and exceed natural levels of T. ornata's EI and buoyancy. Models with high EI and high buoyancy maintained upright postures in both unidirectional flow and waves, and experienced higher forces than models with low EI and moderate or low buoyancy that deflected in the direction of water motion. In waves, buoyant models that were deflected by high velocity rebounded back into upright positions when the flow slowed. Non-buoyant, flexible models were also pushed over by flow but lacked the ability to rebound upright, which led to decreased force in unidirectional flow, but high force in waves.

Ecosystem↗
PubMed2006

The role of the lateral line and vision on body kinematics and hydrodynamic preference of rainbow trout in turbulent flow.

The ability to detect water flow using the hair cells of the lateral line system is a unique feature found in anamniotic aquatic vertebrates. Fishes use their lateral line to locate prey, escape from predators and form cohesive schooling patterns. Despite the prevalence of complex flows in nature, almost nothing is known about the function of the lateral line and its relationship to other sensory modalities for freely swimming fishes in turbulent flows. Past studies indicate that under certain conditions the lateral line is not needed to swim steadily in uniform flow. This paper examines how the lateral line and vision affect body kinematics and hydrodynamic habitat selection of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) exposed to vortices generated behind a cylinder. Trout Kármán gaiting (i.e. exploiting vortices to hold station in a vortex street) with a pharmacologically blocked lateral line display altered kinematics; body wavelength and wave speed increase compared to control animals. When visual cues are withheld by performing experiments in the dark, almost all Kármán gait kinematics measured for fish with and without a functional lateral line are the same. The lateral line, rather than vision, plays a larger role in affecting body kinematics when trout hold station in a vortex street. Trout show a preference to Kármán gait in the light but not in the dark, which may be attributed to physiological state rather than hydrodynamic or sensorimotor reasons. In the dark, trout both with and without a functional lateral line hold station near the downstream suction region of the cylinder wake (i.e. entraining) and avoid the vortex street. Vision therefore plays a larger role in the preference to associate with a turbulent vortex street. Trout in the light with a blocked lateral line show individual variation in their preference to Kármán gait or entrain. In the dark, entraining trout with an intact lateral line will alternate between right and left sides of the cylinder throughout the experiment, showing an ability to explore their environment. By contrast, when the lateral line is blocked these fish display a strong fidelity to one side of the cylinder and are not inclined to explore other regions of the flow tank. Both entraining and Kármán gaiting probably represent energetically favorable strategies for holding station relative to the earth frame of reference in fast flows. The ability to decipher how organisms collect and process sensory input from their environment has great potential in revealing the mechanistic basis of how locomotor behaviors are produced as well as how habitat selection is modulated.

Animals↗
PubMed2007

Hydrodynamic function of dorsal and anal fins in brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis).

Recent kinematic and hydrodynamic studies on fish median fins have shown that dorsal fins actively produce jets with large lateral forces. Because of the location of dorsal fins above the fish's rolling axis, these lateral forces, if unchecked, would cause fish to roll. In this paper we examine the hydrodynamics of trout anal fin function and hypothesize that anal fins, located below the fish's rolling axis, produce similar jets to the dorsal fin and help balance rolling torques during swimming. We simultaneously quantify the wake generated by dorsal and anal fins in brook trout by swimming fish in two horizontal light sheets filmed by two synchronized high speed cameras during steady swimming and manoeuvring. Six major conclusions emerge from these experiments. First, anal fins produce lateral jets to the same side as dorsal fins, confirming the hypothesis that anal fins produce fluid jets that balance those produced by dorsal fins. Second, in contrast to previous work on sunfish, neither dorsal nor anal fins produce significant thrust during steady swimming; flow leaves the dorsal and anal fins in the form of a shear layer that rolls up into vortices similar to those seen in steady swimming of eels. Third, dorsal and anal fin lateral jets are more coincident in time than would be predicted from simple kinematic expectations; shape, heave and pitch differences between fins, and incident flow conditions may account for the differences in timing of jet shedding. Fourth, relative force and torque magnitudes of the anal fin are larger than those of the dorsal fin; force differences may be due primarily to a larger span and a more squarely shaped trailing edge of the anal fin compared to the dorsal fin; torque differences are also strongly influenced by the location of each fin relative to the fish's centre of mass. Fifth, flow is actively modified by dorsal and anal fins resulting in complex flow patterns surrounding the caudal fin. The caudal fin does not encounter free-stream flow, but rather moves through incident flow greatly altered by the action of dorsal and anal fins. Sixth, trout anal fin function differs from dorsal fin function; although dorsal and anal fins appear to cooperate functionally, there are complex interactions between other fins and free stream perturbations that require independent dorsal and anal fin motion and torque production to maintain control of body position.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1995

Evidence for hydrodynamic orientation by spiny lobsters in a patch reef environment

Western Atlantic spiny lobsters (Panulirus argus) are superb underwater navigators. Spiny lobsters perform dramatic seasonal offshore migrations and have also been shown to locate and home to specific den sites within the elaborate coral reef environment in which they live. How these animals perform such complex orientation tasks is not known. The study reported here was designed to explore the sensory mechanisms that spiny lobsters use to orient in and around a familiar patch reef environment. Our results show that, in the absence of visual cues, lobsters displaced a short (50 m) distance off the reef do not initially (i.e. within 20 min) travel towards their dens or return to the patch reef where their dens are located. Instead, the headings lobsters follow are significantly correlated to the direction of local hydrodynamic cues and, specifically, to the direction of approaching wave surge. Results from ultrasonic tracking experiments over longer periods (24 h) suggest that displaced lobsters are able to relocate the reef where they were captured, even without visual cues. These results suggest that hydrodynamic cues may provide useful and immediate directional information to lobsters within the local environment of the home reef.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1999

Locomotion on the water surface: hydrodynamic constraints on rowing velocity require a gait change

Fishing spiders, Dolomedes triton (Araneae, Pisauridae), propel themselves across the water surface using two gaits: they row with four legs at sustained velocities below 0.2 m s(-)(1) and they gallop with six legs at sustained velocities above 0.3 m s(-)(1). Because, during rowing, most of the horizontal thrust is provided by the drag of the leg and its associated dimple as both move across the water surface, the integrity of the dimple is crucial. We used a balance, incorporating a biaxial clinometer as the transducer, to measure the horizontal thrust forces on a leg segment subjected to water moving past it in non-turbulent flow. Changes in the horizontal forces reflected changes in the status of the dimple and showed that a stable dimple could exist only under conditions that combined low flow velocity, shallow leg-segment depth and a long perimeter of the interface between the leg segment and the water. Once the dimple disintegrated, leaving the leg segment submerged, less drag was generated. Therefore, the disintegration of the dimple imposes a limit on the efficacy of rowing with four legs. The limited degrees of freedom in the leg joints (the patellar joints move freely in the vertical plane but allow only limited flexion in other planes) impose a further constraint on rowing by restricting the maximum leg-tip velocity (to approximately 33 % of that attained by the same legs during galloping). This confines leg-tip velocities to a range at which maintenance of the dimple is particularly important. The weight of the spider also imposes constraints on the efficacy of rowing: because the drag encountered by the leg-cum-dimple is proportional to the depth of the dimple and because dimple depth is proportional to the supported weight, only spiders with a mass exceeding 0.48 g can have access to the full range of hydrodynamically possible dimple depths during rowing. Finally, the maximum velocity attainable during rowing is constrained by the substantial drag experienced by the spider during the glide interval between power strokes, drag that is negligible for a galloping spider because, for most of each inter-stroke interval, the spider is airborne. We conclude that both hydrodynamic and anatomical constraints confine rowing spiders to sustained velocities lower than 0.3 m s(-)(1), and that galloping allows spiders to move considerably faster because galloping is free of these constraints.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1999

Body bending during fast-starts in fish can be explained in terms of muscle torque and hydrodynamic resistance

Fish fast-starts are rapid events caused by the simultaneous onset of muscle activity along one side of the body. Spine curvature and the strain and electromyographic activity in white muscle were measured for fast-starts in the common carp Cyprinus carpio. The first bend of the fast-start was powered by muscle on the concave side: muscle fibres on this side were activated and began shortening simultaneously between the length-specific longitudinal sites 0.3L and 0.56L, where L is total body length. However, there was an increasing delay in the timing of the first peak in body curvature and muscle strain along the length of the body. Modelling studies related the rate of body bending to the muscle torque and hydrodynamic resistance of the fish. The muscle torque produced on the spine was greatest in the central region of the trunk, and this acted against the moments of inertia of the fish mass and added mass of water. It was concluded that a wave of body bending can be generated as a result of the hydrodynamic resistance of the fish despite the initiation of that bending being simultaneous along the length of the body.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1989

Failure and hydrodynamic function testing of explanted pericardial and porcine bioprosthetic valves.

The long-term durability and function of cardiac bioprostheses can be affected by both calcification and mechanical failure of the tissue. The mechanisms of failure and hydrodynamic function of 66 explanted bioprostheses have been studied. The majority of porcine valves were heavily calcified with leaflet tears adjacent to the calcification at the commissures. These tears caused prolapsed leaflets and regurgitation of between 30 and 70 per cent. Only three porcine valves had tissue failure in the absence of calcification. The majority of pericardial valves failed due to leaflet tears at the edge of the frame in the absence of macroscopic calcification. These tears also produced prolapsed leaflets and large regurgitation in hydrodynamic tests. Three pericardial valves were heavily calcified and stenotic without leaflet tears. Leaflet dynamics in the pericardial valves were affected by host tissue ingrowth which produced increased pressure drops across the valves, an asymmetrical open position and leaflet flutter. In the absence of calcification and leaflet tears, there was little change in the function of explanted porcine valves.

Bioprosthesis↗
PubMed2004

Hydrodynamic separation of grain and stover components in corn silage.

Mixing fresh silage in water resulted in partial segregation of grain from stover. Grain concentration was 75% in the sunk material when silage was relatively dry (64% moisture content [MC]) and 41% when silage was relatively wet (74% MC). Partial drying to remove 20 percentage units of moisture prior to water separation increased grain concentration to 92%, and complete drying increased grain concentration to 99%. Sieving without drying followed by water separation resulted in a grain concentration of 79%. A byproduct of water separation is a large amount of soluble and deposited fine particles in the effluent: 18% of original dry matter after one separation, and between 21 and 26% after eight separations. In an industrial setting, hydrodynamic separation of silage with minimal pretreatment could provide a feedstock with a high concentration of grain (75-80%). In a laboratory setting, hydrodynamic separation with prior oven drying could provide a method to separate grain from stover in corn silage by reaching a grain concentration higher than 99%.

Agriculture↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Determination of the molecular weight and the hydrodynamic properties of a polypeptide from the thylakoid membrane by sedimentation, diffusion and binding measurements in dodecyl sulphate solutions.

The molecular weight and hydrodynamic properties of a polypeptide isolated from the lamellar system of Antirrhinum chloroplasts were determined in sodium dodecyl sulphate solution by measurement of sedimentation velocity, diffusion and effective partial specific volume. The polypeptide fraction exhibits a molecular weight of 25000 which agrees with the apparent molecular weight found by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The molecular weight of the polypeptide-sodium dodecyl sulphate micelle was 54 000, with a friction ratio of 1.6 which indicates an effective asymmetric hydrodynamic shape. For binding measurements self-diffusion equilibrium dialysis with dodecyl [35S] sulphate was used. In this case, dialysis equilibrium was reached within about 10 hours, in contrast to the dialysis with initial concentration differences which requires much longer times. A binding value of deltaD=1.15 g sodium dodecyl sulphate per g polypeptide was obtained which corresponds to a molar binding ratio of 100 mol dodecyl sulphate bound per mol of polypeptide. After the removal of dodecyl sulphate the polypeptide is present in an aggregated state. In phosphate buffers of pH 6.8 and 7.5 the aggregates preponderantly have sedimentation coefficients of 11.7 and 6.8 Svedberg units respectively. Assuming equivalent spheres the molecular weights were calculated to be 340 000 and 150 000.

Chloroplasts↗
PubMedDate not supplied

A hydrodynamic model of cerebrospinal fluid flow in man.

A hydrodynamic bi-compartmental model for the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow in humans is presented which combines anatomical and physiological conditions in the central nervous system with results of special radioisotope diagnostic techniques. Normal and disturbed conditions, the diagnostic methods and the results are explained. A differential equation for the time behaviour of regional radioisotope concentrations is derived by applying to the model mathematical procedures which are familiar from the description of radioactive decay series, or reaction kinetics of chemical or pharmaceutical processes. The solutions are analysed and discussed with respect to findings of isotope diagnostics, and parameters for the complete and quantitative evaluation of CSF flow systems are derived. A system factor is introduced for classification purposes and, in conjunction with basic principles of hydrodynamics, is used to postulate a similarity law of CSF flow systems. The diagnostical and therapeutical value of the model for analysis and simulation of CSF flow systems is discussed. Practical applications to other disciplines are proposed.

Brain↗
PubMed2006

The hydrodynamic filter separator for removal of urban storm runoff.

The majority of storm runoff pollution is trapped in particles smaller than 100 microm in diameter. Solid particles smaller than 100 microm in diameter are not easily separated by conventional types of hydrodynamic separator, and remain in suspension in overflow. To overcome this problem, a HDFS (hydrodynamic filter separator) has been developed for treatment of the microparticles in urban storm runoff. We conducted a laboratory scale study on treatable potential of microparticles using HDFS that combined HDS with perlite filter. To determine the efficiency for various operation conditions, a series of experiments was performed with different solids concentrations and surface loading rate. The operation ranges of surface loading rates were 100 to 2,800 m3/m2/day, and influent solids concentrations were varied from 800 to 1,900 mg/L. Also, the particle size distribution was monitored to investigate the effects of surface loading rates on the particle size. Results indicated that the HDFS-inside type showed greater efficiency at solids separation than the other type.

Aluminum Oxide↗