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PubMed2005

Expectations about stimulus structure in implicit learning.

In two experiments, artificial grammar learning was used to create learning tasks of identical symbolic complexity that differed in terms of the instructions and the appearance of the stimuli. In Experiment 1, the stimuli were letter strings that appeared in either upper- or lowercase; however, letter case was irrelevant to the learning task. Participants were unable to take into account the instruction to ignore letter case. In Experiment 2, the stimuli were sequences of cities that corresponded to the routes of a traveling salesman. It was assumed that participants would adopt the expectation that the salesman would prefer short journeys. When the structure of the stimuli was inconsistent with this expectation, performance on the learning task was inhibited. The results suggest that there are circumstances in which explicit expectations about the structure of a set of stimuli can affect implicit learning of the stimuli.

Humans↗
PubMed1986

[The administration of knowledge. The biological and the social in the training of health personnel in Latin America].

The article starts with the concept of the management of knowledge, a component of the mission of PAHO as formulated in 1982. The purpose of the article is to consider what ideas have been formulated on the biological and social elements in medicine and how, and to what extent, they have been put into practice. The first part of the document discusses the theory of medicine and the social sciences, and the biological and social nature of the health-disease process. The second part traces the historical development of the biological and social approaches in relation to the degree to which these elements have been isolated and integrated in instruction. The first stage, the decade of the fifties, was characterized by the influence of the Flexner Report: instruction was organized in a cycle of the basic and clinical sciences; there was almost complete separation between medicine and society, and seminars in the Hemisphere proposed the inclusion of an integrated approach. The second stage, the decade of the sixties, was one of the great advances in theory and practice. Hemispheric meetings among health authorities, professional associations and groups of social scientists, physicians, and educators explicitly expounded the need for integration of the social and biological elements into medical education. The biological basis of study plans was reinforced as well. The third stage, the decade of the seventies, was one of consolidation of social medicine in the profession and the intensification of studies in that discipline. The idea then emerged of interdependence between medical education, medical practice, and the organization of health services in a social context. The authors examine the years of the eighties as an unfinished stage of culmination of the integration of the social and biological elements in medicine with inclusion of the idea of the physician's commitment to society.

Biology↗
PubMed2000

Enslaving effects in multi-finger force production.

When a person produces isometric force with one, two, or three fingers, the other fingers of the hand also produce a certain force. Enslaving is the involuntary force production by fingers not explicitly involved in a force-production task. This study explored the enslaving effects (EE) in multi-finger tasks in which the contributions of the flexor digitorum profundus (FDP), flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS), and intrinsic muscles (INT) were manipulated. A new experimental technique was developed that allows the redistribution of the muscle activity between the FDP, FDS, and INT muscles. In the experiment, ten subjects were instructed to perform maximal voluntary contractions with all possible one-, two-, three-, and four-finger combinations. The point of force application was changed in parallel for the index, middle, ring, and little fingers from the middle of the distal phalanx, to the distal interphalangeal joint, and then to the proximal interphalangeal joint. It was found that: (1) the EE of similar amplitude were present in various experimental conditions that involved different muscle groups for force production; (2) the EE were large on average--the slave fingers could produce forces reaching 67.5% of the maximal forces produced by themselves in a single-finger task; (3) the EE were larger for neighboring fingers; and (4) the EE were non-additive--in most cases, the EE from two or three fingers were smaller than the EE from at least one finger. EE among different muscles suggest a widespread neural interaction among the structures controlling flexor muscles in the hand as the main mechanism of finger enslaving.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

College student bereavement, scholarship, and the university: a call for university engagement.

The prevalence of bereavement among traditional-aged college students should impel universities to assist bereaved students on their campuses. Dealing with bereavement can not only challenge a college student's completing the developmental tasks that our society sets for the later adolescent years, but also imperil the student's remaining in school and graduating. It is in the best interests of the university to develop and implement a variety of effective interventions to assist bereaved students. The author argues that universities are communities devoted to scholarly endeavors and should explicitly incorporate the dimension of compassion and caring. An abbreviated case study is used to illustrate the situations in which one grieving student found herself when she returned to school following the death of her father. A call is made for greater university engagement by forming a university-based bereavement center to coordinate and conduct coherent inquiry that fulfills the scholarly functions of discovery, application, and instruction. Four specific actions for a bereavement center are to train nonbereaved students to provide peer support, to provide structured interventions for college students at risk of bereavement complications, to raise consciousness about bereavement on the university campus, and to conduct research into various bereavement populations and bereavement topics.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Coordination of analytic and similarity-based processing strategies and expertise in dermatological diagnosis.

BACKGROUND: Medical diagnosis may be thought of as a categorization task. Research and theory in psychology as well as medical decision making indicate at least 2 processes by which this categorization task may be accomplished: (a) analytic processing, in which one makes explicit use of clinical features to reach a diagnosis, and (b) similarity-based processing, in which one makes use of past exemplars to reach a clinical diagnosis. Recent research indicates that these 2 processes are complementary. PURPOSE: We investigate the coordination of analytic and similarity-based processes in clinical decision making to examine if the relative reliance on these 2 processes is (a) amenable to instruction and (b) dependent on level of clinical experience. METHODS: The reliance of these 2 processes was indexed by the performance of 12 preclinical medical students on cases dichotomized as typical and atypical (analytic processing) and on cases dichotomized as similar or dissimilar to cases seen previously in a training phase (similarity-based processing). RESULTS: The results indicated that both processes are operative. Of particular interest was that preclinical medical students enhanced their performance by adopting a similarity-based strategy. This was especially so for atypical cases. These results are in contrast to residents, who enhanced their performance by adopting an analytic strategy. CONCLUSIONS: The relative reliance on analytic and similarity-based processes is amenable to instruction and dependent on expertise.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMed2002

A new game plan for C players.

It's a big driver of business success, but one that executives are loath to talk about: upgrading the talent pool by weeding out "C" players from management. These aren't the incompetent or unethical managers whom organizations dismiss without a backward glance; C performers deliver results that are acceptable--barely--but they fail to innovate or to inspire the people they lead. The authors of The War for Talent have studied what it takes to upgrade an organization's talent pool. In this article, they explore the hidden costs of tolerating under-performance and acknowledge the reasons why executives may shy away from dealing decisively with C players. They recommend that organizations take an "iron hand in a velvet glove" approach to managing subpar performers. That is, companies should establish rigorous, disciplined processes for assessing and dealing with low-performing managers but still treat them with respect. The authors outline three ironhanded steps. First, executives must identify C players by evaluating their talents and distributing employee performances along an assessment curve. Second, executives must agree on explicit action plans that articulate the improvements or changes that C performers must achieve within six to 12 months. And third, executives should hold managers accountable for carrying out the action plans. Without such discipline, procrastination, rationalization, and inaction will prevail. The authors also emphasize the need for the "velvet glove." Executives must ensure that low performers are treated with dignity, so they should offer candid feedback, instructive coaching, and generous severance packages and outplacement support. The authors' approach isn't about being tough on people; it's about being relentlessly focused on performance.

Administrative Personnel↗
PubMed2005

Comprehending product warning information: age-related effects and the roles of memory, inferencing, and knowledge.

Two experiments were conducted to determine if age affects comprehension for explicit and implied warning information and, if so, to reveal the nature of such effects. Experiment 1 measured younger (18-23 years) and older (65-75 years) adults' comprehension for real-world warnings via a verification test presented immediately after reading the warnings or after a delay. In Experiment 2, younger (18-22 years) and older (64-76 years) participants also read fabricated warnings that were inconsistent with real-world knowledge. In both experiments, older adults frequently failed to infer the correct hazard and safety information. The older adults also had trouble understanding warning information even when it was explicitly stated (when no inferences were required), especially when memory demands were high and product-specific knowledge could not be used. That many of the older adults did not understand commonly used product warnings indicates that the wording on many household products is not conducive to being understood by everyone who uses them. Actual or potential applications of this research include the recommendation that designers of product labels, warnings, and instructions should consider minimizing memory load and maximizing opportunities for knowledge application when designing consumer warnings.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1976

Contingent observation: an effective and acceptable procedure for reducing disruptive behavior of young children in a group setting.

Since a major task of childhood is learning to get along in a group without disrupting other children's activities, caregivers need explicit guidelines for gentle but effective procedures for dealing with disruptive behaviors in child-care settings. In a day-care center for normal 1- and 2-yr.-old children, an effort was made to develop a procedure that appeared sufficiently humane and educational to be acceptable to parents and day-care workers, and yet effective in reducing disruptive play behaviors. Caregivers used the occasion of disruptive behavior to instruct the child in appropriate alternatives, then had the child sit on the periphery and observe the appropriate social behavior of the other children "sit and watch", for a brief period before inviting him or her to rejoin the play activities. The effectiveness of this procedure was compared with a method commonly recommended for the use with young children: instructing the child, then distracting or redirecting the child to an alternative toy or activity. Contingent observation, combining instruction with a brief timeout (from being a participant in an activity to becoming an observer of the activity), proved considerably more effective in maintaining low levels of disruptions and was considered by caregivers and parents to be an appropriate and socially acceptable method of dealing with young children's disruptive behaviors. Therefore, contingent observation can be recommended for general use in day-care programs for young children.

Attention↗
PubMed1996

Influences of intentionality at encoding and retrieval on memory in adulthood and old age.

This research investigated whether different memory functions are differentially affected by the adult aging process. Four groups of normal adults (18-35, 60-68, 69-78, and 79-91 years of age) were presented with a set of pictures of faces with first names and surnames. Subjects were instructed to memorize the faces and the surnames for subsequent memory tests. Memory performance was assessed in four ways: stem completion of surnames; recognition of faces; recognition of surnames and recognition of first names. These memory tests varied in terms of intentionality at encoding and retrieval. The stem completion task involved intention at encoding, but not at retrieval, and thus served as a measure of implicit memory. With respect to the three explicit memory tasks, recognition of faces and surnames involved intention at both encoding and retrieval, whereas recognition of first names involved intention at retrieval, but not at encoding. Results indicated no age-related differences in implicit memory, as assessed by the stem completion test. In addition, there was an age-related deficit in recognition of faces and surnames, although there were no age-related differences in recognition of first names. The overall pattern of results suggests that age-related deficits in memory may be most likely to occur when there are demands of conscious mental activity at encoding and retrieval.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

Procedural knowledge in mathematics: the role of the curriculum.

Over the last few years, the information processing model of cognition has become increasingly prominent in the field. With this model, and other related research in cognitive science, there is a greater appreciation for the role of instruction in learning theory. One of the model's central tenets is that, as learners become more competent, they move from declarative to procedural states of knowledge. Researchers have concerned themselves with the efficiency of this transition, as well as with any systematic misconceptions that develop along the way. A carefully developed curriculum addresses both of these concerns. This article will focus on three principles of curriculum development: the nature of examples, explicitness, and parsimony. Recently conducted research that supports these principles will also be discussed. It is suggested that special educators strongly consider these principles when selecting or developing curricular material for students with learning disabilities.

Child↗
PubMed2000

[Implicit memory and its contribution to the rehabilitation of an amnesic patient: case report].

Even severe amnesic patients usually are able to learn new information using implicit memory strategies. In the present study we describe our experience in the rehabilitation of an amnesic patient who had suffered cerebral anoxia. He was taught to use a computer text editor, enabling him to sheltered work. The training program lasted 14 weeks and was based on errorless learning and drilling practice techniques. The patient succeeded in all tasks, even though he could not remember accurately the training sessions. These results meet previous studies which point out that interaction between implicit and residual explicit memory can provide a basis new learning in amnesic patients. The domain-specific knowledge acquisition is demonstrating effectiveness in neuropsychological rehabilitation of brain injured patients.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

Timed magnitude comparisons of numerical and nonnumerical expressions of uncertainty.

Two experiments involving paired comparisons of numerical and nonnumerical expressions of uncertainty are reported. Subjects were timed under two opposing sets of instructions ("choose higher probability" vs. "choose lower probability"). Numerical comparisons were consistently faster and easier than their nonnumerical counterparts. Consistent distance and congruity effects were obtained, illustrating that both numerical and nonnumerical expressions of uncertainty contain subjective magnitude information, and suggesting that similar processes are employed in manipulating and comparing numerical and verbal terms. To account for the general pattern of results obtained, Holyoak's reference point model (1978) was generalized by explicitly including the vagueness of the nonnumerical expressions. This generalized model is based on the notion that probability expressions can be represented by membership functions (Wallsten, Budescu, Rapoport, Zwick, & Forsyth, 1986) from which measures of location for each word, and measures of overlap for each pair can be derived. A good level of fit was obtained for this model at the individual level.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

[Advanced directives document and neurologist-patient relationship].

Perception of health and disease, pain and suffering, quality of life, personal relationships, privacy and intimacy, culture and social values, can now be stated in a written document, by way of a living will, giving legal legitimacy to each patient's way of being and understanding life, to be used when the subject cannot express it by him/herself. In this way, the patients will participate in the therapeutic process and will incorporate their desires and decisions through the Informed Consent and the Advanced Directives Document (ADD). Both documents translate and indicate how to treat and care for a patient who will progressively lose his/her cognitive faculties and others will decided for him/her, in the case of dementias. The basis of ADD is respect and promotion of the patient's autonomy, prolonging his/her right to decide in the stages in which he/she cannot do it. It consists in some instructions or orientations for the patient to be cared for in a certain way, according to his/her will. To this effect, a representative will be named who will act in the subject's name and who will help to interpret and make decisions when the patient cannot. Specifically, in Alzheimer's disease, ADD allows the patient to decide, in full lucidity, freedom and autonomy, how to live a progressive and irreversible disease. Explicit mention can be made to the will of making his/her disease known publically or not, the care of its aspect, privacy, type of care, whether institutionalized or home care, limitation of visits, treatment intensity and prolongation, palliative cares, donation of biological samples, participation in drug clinical trials.

Advance Directives↗
PubMed2006

Instantiated features and the use of "rules.".

Classification "rules" in expert and everyday discourse are usually deficient by formal standards, lacking explicit decision procedures and precise terms. The authors argue that a central function of such weak rules is to focus on perceptual learning rather than to provide definitions. In 5 experiments, transfer following learning of family resemblance categories was influenced more by familiar-appearing features than by novel-appearing features equally acceptable under the rule. This occurred both when rules were induced and when rules were given at the beginning of instruction. To model this and other phenomena in categorization, features must be represented on 2 levels: informational and instantiated. These 2 feature levels are crucial to provide broad generalization while reflecting the known peculiarities of a complex world.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2004

Disordered knowledge of action order in action disorganisation syndrome.

We report data on stored knowledge of everyday tasks in a patient, FK, with 'action disorganisation syndrome'. In section 1, we analysed his explicit knowledge of the component actions, and their temporal order. FK showed generally impaired knowledge of everyday tasks relative to controls, and, when knowledge of the temporal order of the actions was probed, he showed particular impairments for the actions making up the final steps in tasks. In section 2 we assessed FK's implicit knowledge of the tasks, by evaluating how knowledge of the tasks influenced his ability to act out sets of instructions. We demonstrate that FK had some implicit knowledge of the tasks, but also, when actions had to be performed in the order as instructed, there was better knowledge of order for actions performed early rather than late in the task. We suggest that disordered task schema contributed to FK's deficits, with impairments on 'end' actions being vulnerable when task order was important for performance.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed1995

The efficacy of imagery mnemonics in memory remediation.

Training and instructions in the use of mental imagery can lead to improved retention in patients with memory impairment as the result of brain injury or disease. The amount of improvement varies inversely with the severity of memory impairment, but it largely unrelated to either the aetiology or the locus of brain damage. It also appears to depend on the patients' motivation rather than their intelligence, education or imagery ability. However, brain-damaged patients may need explicit prompting if they are to use imagery mnemonics successfully and often fail to maintain their use on similar learning materials or to generalise their use to new learning situations. As a result, imagery mnemonics will typically be of little practical value in enabling memory-impaired individuals to respond to the cognitive challenges of everyday life.

Brain Injuries↗
PubMed2004

Intentional control and implicit sequence learning.

Sequence knowledge acquired by repeated exposure to targets in a speeded localization task was studied in 3 experiments that sought to test A. Destrebecqz and A. Cleeremans's (2001, 2003) claim that, under certain circumstances, the expression of such sequence knowledge cannot be brought under intentional control. In Experiment 1 participants were trained on either a deterministic or a probabilistic sequence and then performed a free-generation test under either inclusion or exclusion instructions. Participants were found to be capable of both expressing (inclusion) and avoiding expressing (exclusion) sequence knowledge. These results were confirmed in Experiment 2 with a more exact replication of Destrebecqz and Cleeremans's methodology. In Experiment 3 participants performed a trial-by-trial generation test under both inclusion and exclusion conditions after a much longer period of training. All the findings are consistent with the proposal that information acquired during sequence learning is explicit in nature.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Is inferential reasoning just probabilistic reasoning in disguise?

Oaksford, Chater, and Larkin (2000) have suggested that people actually use everyday probabilistic reasoning when making deductive inferences. In two studies, we explicitly compared probabilistic and deductive reasoning with identical if-then conditional premises with concrete content. In the first, adults were given causal premises with one strongly associated antecedent and were asked to make standard deductive inferences or to judge the probabilities of conclusions. In the second, reasoners were given scenarios presenting a causal relation with zero to three potential alternative antecedents. The participants responded to each set of problems under both deductive and probabilistic instructions. The results show that deductive and probabilistic inferences are not isomorphic. Probabilistic inferences can model deductive responses only using a limited, very high threshold model, which is equivalent to a simple retrieval model. These results provide a clearer understanding of the relations between probabilistic and deductive inferences and the limitations of trying to consider these two forms of inference as having a single underlying process.

Humans↗