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PubMedDate not supplied

Investigation of resistance of bacteria from commercial poultry sources to commercial disinfectants.

Concern by consumers about food safety has resulted in increased pressure on poultry companies to develop effective sanitation programs. Salmonella isolates in hatcheries are often the same species isolated from processing plants. Resistance develops in bacteria after prolonged exposure to disinfectants. The methods available in published literature to detect the efficacy of disinfectants are labor intensive and do not consider how bacteria behave when adhered to a solid surface. We used a recently developed technique, which utilizes the actual surfaces on which the disinfectant is to be applied, to evaluate the degree of resistance to four commercially available disinfectants of 17 bacterial isolates from poultry hatcheries. We found that bacterial isolates within the same genus and species have different sensitivities to the same disinfectant. In addition, disinfectants with similar but not identical chemical formulations have different efficacies against the same bacteria.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

One-stage full-mouth disinfection. Long-term microbiological results analyzed by checkerboard DNA-DNA hybridization.

BACKGROUND: Recent studies reported significant, additional clinical and microbiological improvements when severe adult periodontitis was treated via the one-stage full-mouth (OSFM) disinfection approach, instead of a standard treatment scheme with staged instrumentation per quadrant. The OSFM disinfection involves dealing with the remaining oropharyngeal niches such as tonsils, saliva, tongue, and mucosa. The OSFM disinfection procedure involves scaling and root planing of all pockets within 24 hours in combination with chlorhexidine application to all oropharyngeal niches (chairside and at home for 2 months). This study aimed to compare the microbiological shifts with the OSFM approach versus standard therapy. METHODS: Nineteen patients with advanced chronic periodontitis (AP) and 12 patients with early-onset periodontitis (EOP) were randomly assigned to the test and control groups. The control group (9 AP patients, 6 EOP patients) was scaled and root planed, per quadrant, with 2-week intervals. The test group (10 AP patients and 6 EOP patients) underwent OSFM disinfection treatment. At baseline and after 2, 4, and 8 months, pooled subgingival plaque samples were taken from single- and multi-rooted teeth. The presence and levels of 30 subgingival taxa were determined using whole genomic DNA probes and checkerboard DNA-DNA hybridization. RESULTS: Both treatments resulted in important reductions of the pathogenic species up to 8 months after therapy, both for their detection level and frequency. The OSFM disinfection resulted in an additional improvement, especially in the AP group. P. gingivalis and B. forsythus were reduced below detection level. The number of beneficial species remained nearly unchanged. CONCLUSIONS: The OSFM disinfection results in supplementary reductions of periodontal pathogens even after 8 months in the treatment of patients with advanced or early-onset periodontitis.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Identification of sources of Salmonella organisms in a veterinary teaching hospital and evaluation of the effects of disinfectants on detection of Salmonella organisms on surface materials.

OBJECTIVE: To determine sources of Salmonella organisms in a veterinary teaching hospital, compare bacterial culture with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing for detection of Salmonella organisms in environmental samples, and evaluate the effects of various disinfectants on detection of Salmonella organisms on surface materials. DESIGN: Prospective study. SAMPLE POPULATION: Fecal samples from 638 hospitalized horses and 783 environmental samples. PROCEDURE: Standard bacterial culture techniques were used; the PCR test amplified a segment of the Salmonella DNA. Five disinfectants were mixed with Salmonella suspensions, and bacterial culture was performed. Swab samples were collected from 7 surface materials after inoculation of the surfaces with Salmonella Typhimurium, with or without addition of a disinfectant, and submitted for bacterial culture and PCR testing. RESULTS: Salmonella organisms were detected in fecal samples from 35 (5.5%) horses. For environmental samples, the proportion of positive bacterial culture results (1/783) was significantly less than the proportion of positive PCR test results (110/783), probably because of detection of nonviable DNA by the PCR test. Detection of Salmonella organisms varied with the surface material tested, the method of detection (bacterial culture vs PCR testing), and the presence and type of disinfectant. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results of the present study suggested that Salmonella organisms can be isolated from feces of hospitalized horses and a variety of environmental surfaces in a large animal hospital. Although recovery of Salmonella organisms was affected by surface material and disinfectant, bleach was the most effective disinfectant on the largest number of surfaces tested.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Efficacy of a new premilking teat disinfectant containing a phenolic combination for the prevention of mastitis.

A teat disinfectant containing a phenolic combination was evaluated in a natural exposure study in two dairy research herds. Premilking teat disinfection was compared with a negative control using a split-udder experimental design. In both herds, premilking and postmilking teat disinfections with the phenolic combination were significantly more effective in preventing new intramammary infection (IMI) than was postmilking teat disinfection only. Clinical mastitis and new IMI by Streptococcus uberis, Streptococcus dysgalactiae, Gram-negative pathogens, and coagulase-negative Staphylococcus species were significantly lower in quarters of cows with teats predipped and postdipped than in quarters with teats postdipped only. No chapping or teat skin irritation was observed. Premilking teat disinfection with the phenolic combination in association with good udder preparation and postmilking teat disinfection can further reduce the occurrence of new IMI by numerous mastitis pathogens during lactation.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Fungicidal effects of chemical disinfectants, UV light, desiccation and heat on the amphibian chytrid Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.

The efficacy of a number of disinfection treatments was tested on in vitro cultures of the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the causative agent of chytridiomycosis in amphibians. The aim was to evaluate the fungicidal effects of chemical disinfectants, sterilising ultraviolet (UV) light, heat and desiccation, using methods that were feasible for either disinfection in the field, in amphibian husbandry or in the laboratory. The chemical disinfectants tested were: sodium chloride, household bleach (active ingredient: sodium hypochlorite), potassium permanganate, formaldehyde solution, Path-X agricultural disinfectant (active ingredient: didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride, DDAC), quaternary ammonium compound 128 (DDAC), Dithane, Virkon, ethanol and benzalkonium chloride. In 2 series of experiments using separate isolates of B. dendrobatidis, the fungicidal effect was evaluated for various time periods and at a range of chemical concentrations. The end point measured was death of 100% of zoospores and zoosporangia. Nearly all chemical disinfectants resulted in 100%, mortality for at least one of the concentrations tested. However, concentration and time of exposure was critical for most chemicals. Exposure to 70% ethanol, 1 mg Virkon ml(-1) or 1 mg benzalkonium chloride ml(-1) resulted in death of all zoosporangia after 20 s. The most effective products for field use were Path-X and the quaternary ammonium compound 128, which can be used at dilutions containing low levels (e.g. 0.012 or 0.008%, respectively) of the active compound didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride. Bleach, containing the active ingredient sodium hypochlorite, was effective at concentrations of 1% sodium hypochlorite and above. Cultures did not survive complete drying, which occurred after <3 h at room temperature. B. dendrobatidis was sensitive to heating, and within 4 h at 37 degrees C, 30 min at 47 degrees C and 5 min at 60 degrees C, 100% mortality occurred. UV light (at 1000 mW m(-2) with a wavelength of 254 nm) was ineffective at killing B. dendrobatidis in culture.

Cells, Cultured↗
PubMed1999

Formulation of glutaraldehyde disinfectant for alginate impressions.

The effect of buffer agents incorporated in glutaraldehyde disinfectants on the surface quality of dental models was examined by the measurement of surface roughness, X-ray diffraction analysis and SEM observation. Seven experimental glutaraldehyde disinfectants were prepared using two buffer agents, potassium acetate alone or potassium acetate and sodium hydrogen carbonate in combination. Four kinds of sulfate--zinc, calcium, potassium and magnesium sulfate--were added to these disinfectants in order to accelerate the hydration of calcium sulfate hemihydrate. The impressions treated with the experimental disinfectants for 1 h produced stone surfaces which had significantly lower surface roughness values than those treated with the commercial disinfectants (p < 0.05). The X-ray diffraction analysis and SEM observation showed that these superior surfaces were produced as a result of significant reductions in the amount of residual calcium sulfate hemihydrate. Replacement of buffer agents in commercial glutaraldehyde disinfectants with chemicals such as those studied in the present study will improve the surface quality of dental stone.

Alginates↗
PubMed2004

Limitation of the spread and impact of infectious coryza through the use of a continuous disinfection programme.

The effect of a continuous disinfection programme, using the non-toxic disinfectant Virukill, in layers, on the spread and impact of infectious coryza, caused by Haemophilus paragallinarum was evaluated. In this experiment, both unvaccinated layers and layers vaccinated against infectious coryza were used. Duplicate smaller groups of vaccinated and unvaccinated chickens were challenged with different serovars of both NAD-dependent as well as NAD-independent isolates of Haemophilus paragallinarum. One group of chickens challenged with each of the different becterial serovars was treated with the continuous disinfection programme, while the other group remained as the untreated controls. The clinical signs of infectious coryza were evaluated over a period of 20 days in each group. The egg production over this period was also evaluated. It was found in all experimental challenges, that the severity of the symptoms was reduced in the birds receiving the continuous disinfection programme. The drop in egg production was also found to be less severe in the treated groups when compared to the untreated control groups. The duration of infection was found to be either unchanged, or shorter in the birds treated with the continuous disinfection programme. In none of the experimental challenges was the duration or expression of clinical signs of IC increased due to the continuous disinfection programme.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed2001

Efficacy of commonly used disinfectants for the inactivation of calicivirus on strawberry, lettuce, and a food-contact surface.

Norwalk and Norwalk-like viruses (NLVs) are important causes of foodborne gastroenteritis in restaurant-related outbreaks. Efficacy of common disinfection methods against these viruses on food-contact surfaces and fresh produce is not known partially because of their nonculturability. Seven commercial disinfectants for food-contact surfaces and three sanitizers for fruits and vegetables were tested against cultivable feline calicivirus (FCV). Disks of stainless steel, strawberry, and lettuce were contaminated with known amounts of FCV. The disinfectants were applied at one, two, and four times the manufacturer's recommended concentrations for contact times of 1 and 10 min. The action of disinfectant was stopped by dilution, and the number of surviving FCVs was determined by titration in cell cultures. An agent was considered effective if it reduced the virus titer by at least 3 log10 from an initial level of 10(7) 50% tissue culture infective dose. None of the disinfectants was effective when used at the manufacturer's recommended concentration for 10 min. Phenolic compounds, when used at two to four times the recommended concentration, completely inactivated FCV on contact surfaces. A combination of quaternary ammonium compound and sodium carbonate was effective on contact surfaces at twice the recommended concentration. Rinsing of produce with water alone reduced virus titer by 2 log10. On artificially contaminated strawberry and lettuce, peroxyacetic acid and hydrogen peroxide was the only effective formulation when used at four times the manufacturers' recommended concentration for 10 min. These findings suggest that FCV and perhaps NLVs are very resistant to commercial disinfectants. However, phenolic compounds at two to four times their recommended concentrations appear to be effective at decontaminating environmental surfaces and may help control foodborne outbreaks of calicivirus in restaurants.

Caliciviridae↗
PubMed2004

The association between cleaning and disinfection of lairage pens and the prevalence of Salmonella enterica in swine at harvest.

A series of four field trials were conducted to evaluate the ability of a cleaning and disinfection procedure in swine lairage pens to reduce the prevalence of Salmonella enterica in slaughtered pigs. A cleaning and disinfection procedure was applied to lairage pens at a large Midwest abattoir. Each trial consisted of a cleaned (alkaline chloride detergent) and disinfected (H2O2 plus peracetic acid sanitizer) pen (treated) and a control pen, each holding 90 to 95 pigs for 2 to 3 h before slaughter. Ileocecal lymph nodes, cecal contents, and rectal contents were collected from 45 pigs from each study pen at harvest and cultured for S. enterica. In all trials, cleaning and disinfection reduced the prevalence of S. enterica-positive floor swabs in the treated pen (P < 0.05). However, the postharvest prevalence of S. enterica-positive pigs varied between trials. In trial 1, there was no significant difference in the prevalence of S. enterica in pigs between treatment and control groups. In trials 2 and 3, the prevalence of S. enterica was higher in pigs from treated pens versus pigs from control pens (91% versus 40%, P < 0.0001, and 91% versus 24%, P < 0.0001, respectively). In trial 4, the prevalence of S. enterica was lower in pigs from treated pens compared with pigs from control pens (5% versus 42%, P < 0.0001). This study indicates that cleaning and disinfection effectively reduces the amount of culturable S. enterica in lairage pens, but the ability of cleaned and disinfected pens to reduce the prevalence of S. enterica in market-weight pigs remains inconclusive.

Abattoirs↗
PubMed2006

Efficacy of amphoteric surfactant- and peracetic acid-based disinfectants on spores of bacillus cereus in vitro and on food premises of the German armed forces.

In mass catering facilities of the German Armed Forces, foodborne outbreaks are commonly attributed to Bacillus cereus, and spores of this organism are regularly found on equipment surfaces. B. cereus is the causative agent of foodborne emetic or diarrheic disease. Hence, the use of sporicidal disinfectants may provide a starting point for successful risk mitigation of diseases associated with B. cereus. In this study, the amphoteric surfactant-based disinfectant (product A) that has been routinely used in catering facilities of the German Armed Forces and a peracetic acid-based disinfectant (product B) were compared for their efficacy against B. cereus spores in laboratory tests and under field conditions. In a carrier test for B. cereus spores, product A displayed no efficacy against spores of the test strain. In contrast, a substantial reduction in spore concentration (>5-log reduction) was achieved with product B. In a controlled trial conducted in seven Army catering facilities, the reduction in the number of B. cereus-positive samples was significantly greater (P < 0.001) for product B (from 28% initial contamination to 3% after application) than for product A (from 33 to 21%). Product B was estimated to be 6.25 times more efficacious than product A. Field trials confirmed the higher efficacy of the peracetic acid-based disinfectant to reduce B. cereus contamination on surfaces as found for the in vitro experiments. The tests used to assess the sporicidal effects of disinfectants were adequate under practice conditions and could be used for sporicidal testing of disinfectants for catering and food production establishments.

Bacillus cereus↗
PubMed1991

Cleaning and disinfection of endoscopes: have there been recent improvements?

OBJECTIVE: to determine if there have been improvements in the manner in which endoscopes are being cleaned and disinfected since our previous study in 1987. In that study of 123 hospitals, in only 45% of institutions did cleaning and disinfection appear to be satisfactory. DESIGN: One hundred and twenty-two questionnaires were sent to the endoscopy charge nurse of the hospitals identifiable from our previous study. To ensure the collection of complete information from these hospitals, in those from whom a written reply was not received, the information was obtained by persistent telephone contact. The criteria used to assess adequate cleaning and disinfection were the same as in our previous study. These were based on recommendations of learned bodies and the literature. SETTING: A complete cross section of hospitals from all States and Territories in Australia was surveyed. These were both public and private, primary care to tertiary referral, teaching and non-teaching, city and country. MAIN OUTCOME: One hundred and twenty-three replies were obtained from the 122 hospitals surveyed. In 75% cleaning and disinfection of endoscopes appeared to be satisfactory. Adequate cleaning procedures were noted in 77% compared with 60% in the 1987 survey. The use of appropriate disinfection increased to 94% from 62% previously. CONCLUSION: We found that since 1987 there had been a considerable improvement in the cleaning and disinfection of endoscopes in the hospitals surveyed.

Australia↗
PubMed1991

Clinical evaluation of ColdSpor, a glutaraldehyde-phenolic disinfectant.

UNLABELLED: Disinfecting solutions may vary in concentration and bactericidal activity with use, may have subjectively unpleasant characteristics, and may affect the appearance and physical condition of the equipment processed. We evaluated the high-level disinfectant ColdSpor (0.5% glutaraldehyde, 0.025% ortho-phenylphenol, and 0.005% para-tertiary amylphenol) by using it as the disinfecting agent in the processing of equipment for a large respiratory care service. MATERIALS & METHOD: The type and quantity of equipment disinfected and the physical condition of the equipment were observed and recorded. Samples of the disinfectant solution were analyzed each week, and the antimicrobial activity of the solution was tested against clinical isolates and test cultures of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The odor of the solution and ease of use were subjectively evaluated by two equipment-processing technicians. RESULTS: More than 2,400 pieces of respiratory equipment were passed through the disinfectant solution during the 30-day study period. No changes in the appearance of the equipment were noted. Analysis revealed that 71% or more of the antimicrobial chemicals remained in the solution. Clinical isolates and test cultures of P aeruginosa showed no growth when cultured with samples of the solution in use up to 30 days. The two technicians subjectively judged the solution to have no noticeable odor and to produce no burning of the eyes. CONCLUSION: The concentration of components of the glutaraldehyde-phenolic solution maintained bactericidal activity for as long as 30 days. The solution produced no apparent physical change in equipment and was subjectively acceptable to those processing equipment.

Data Collection↗
PubMed1999

Antimicrobial comparison of a new multi-purpose disinfecting solution to a 3% hydrogen peroxide system.

PURPOSE: We compared the antimicrobial activity of a new multi-purpose disinfection solution (OPTI-FREE EXPRESS with ALDOX) to a 3% hydrogen peroxide disinfecting system. The antimicrobial ingredients in the new solution are polyquaternium-1 and myristamidopropyl dimethylamine. METHODS: The solutions were tested for antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus sp.., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia marcescens, Candida albicans, Fusarium solani, and two Acanthamoeba species and were evaluated according to the primary criteria of the FDA and ISO contact lens disinfection procedures. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: OPTI-FREE EXPRESS with ALDOX (EXPRESS MPDS) Multi-Purpose Disinfecting Solution provided a multiple spectrum of antimicrobial activity and met the FDA and ISO primary Stand Alone Test criteria for disinfection of contact lenses. EXPRESS MPDS showed disinfection activity in the range of a 3% hydrogen peroxide system. Unlike the 3% hydrogen peroxide system, it retarded contamination during storage.

Bacteria↗
PubMed1975

Investigations on the efficacy of surface disinfection and surface cleaning procedures. 2. Laboratory testing of the efficacy under conditions simulating those of real-life.

Using a standardised method (impression method by means of 'Rodac' plates and glass as well as ceramic surfaces as germ carriers) we tested for the efficacy of 3 surface disinfectants (aldehydes, aldehydes + detergent substances, phenol derivatives) and 3 disinfectant cleaning agents (aldehydes + detergent substances + wax) and 2 per cent soft soap solution on Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Sarcina lutea. The method enabled us to calculate the actual germ count reduction and also took account of the natural dying-rate of the test organisms. Their resistance to the different types of active substances varied greatly. Thus the 3 disinfectants had a better effect on Klebsiellae and Staphylococci than on Sarcinae. 2 of the 3 disinfectant cleaning agents, on the other hand, turned out to be less suitable for the elimination of Klebsiellae. It thus follows that Sarcina cannot be used as test organism for in-use tests (see Communication 1) unless the resistance of Staphylococci and Klebsiellae to the test preparation has first been established in laboratory experiments. The general question, namely whether in-use tests provide meaningful and accurate results remain to be elucidated. On the basis of our test results, the exclusive use of soap for cleaning floors, as a substitute of disinfection, should definitely be ruled out. Although soap reduces Gram-positive cocci well in actual practice, it is almost ineffective against problem germs such as Klebsiellae. What should be stipulated is the use of broad-spectrum disinfectants, i.e. they should, if possible, act equally well against different types of germs. From the commercially-available preparations that were tested, a phenol-base product gave the best results. On the basis of these results we venture to doubt that the use of aldehyde preparations which is customary at the moment, is the right approach to fight hospital infections.

Aldehydes↗
PubMed2002

An in-vitro study of the effects of various disinfectants on prosthetic and surface materials.

OBJECTIVE: This study assessed the effect of various disinfectants on several contaminated prosthetic and surface-covering materials. METHODS: The efficacy of 6 disinfectants used at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, on prosthetic and surface-covering materials, irreversible hydrocolloid and elastomer impression materials, wax, acrylic resin, metal, bench-covering material, and floor carpet. These materials were contaminated with Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus. Counts of viable bacteria on the materials was determined by incubated replica plating on blood agar plates at 5 minute intervals. A 3 way non parametric analysis of variance was used to evaluate the main effects and interactions of the disinfectants, bacteria, and materials. RESULTS: Statistical analysis showed that material, type of disinfectant, and interactions between material and bacteria were significant. Carpet has a significantly higher bacterial count than many other items (P < 0.0001) such as acrylic resin, irreversible hydrocolloid, chrome-cobalt casting, and laminated bench surfaces. CONCLUSION: Quaternary ammonia compound and the tertiary ammonia phenol were the most effective disinfectants. Efficacy of the disinfectant depends partly on the bacteria used for contamination. Carpets in dental clinics showed high potential to retain microorganisms.

Colony Count, Microbial↗
PubMed2002

Biocide use in the food industry and the disinfectant resistance of persistent strains of Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli.

AIMS: The aims of the project were threefold: to survey the use of disinfectants in the UK food industry; to assess the product and environmental microflora of selected food factories for the persistence of Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli; and to determine the disinfectant resistance of any persistent strains. METHODS AND RESULTS: A survey of the use of disinfectants in the UK food industry was undertaken in which a total of 40 sites were visited and a further 77 postal questionnaires were returned from farms, food manufacture, food transport and food retail sites. Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) were predominantly used, applied in small volumes as a mist. Approximately 30,000 samples from the product and environment of five chilled food factories were examined for L. monocytogenes and E. coli over a 3 year period. A total of 181 L. monocytogenes and 176 E. coli isolates were ribotyped to yield 19 and 34 ribogroups, respectively. Some strains were isolated only from the product, a number only from the environment and others from both niches. Some strains were seen to be persistent for the duration of the sampling exercise (2-3 years). The most common L. monocytogenes and E. coli strains, together with two environmental L. monocytogenes strains, were assessed for any resistance to commercial disinfectants as compared with a laboratory L. monocytogenes disinfectant testing strain. The resistance of the L. monocytogenes and E. coli strains isolated from the factory were not significantly different from the laboratory control strain. CONCLUSIONS: Persistent strains of L. monocytogenes and E. coli are found in the UK food industry, though this persistence is not related to their increased susceptibility to the most commonly used disinfectants. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The concept of a persistent microflora in food factories will have an impact on the future selection of suitable control options, including the use of biocides.

DNA Fingerprinting↗
PubMed1979

[Suitability of chemical neutralizers applied for disinfection control on commercial animal husbandry objects].

A study on the effect of various neutralizers of the most widely spread means of disinfection applied in animal rearing was made. For that purpose twin lecytine was tested for quadruple ammonium compounds: twin--for phenolic compounds, natrium thiosulfate--for iodoformium and chlor-containing compounds, as well as natrium sulfite--for formalin. As test micro-organisms were used Staph. aureus Sg 511, E. coli 078, and Ps. aeruginosa. The investigations were performed after the suspension method with dilutions in geometrical progressions. It was established that for the disinfection by quadruple ammonium compounds 3% twin-80 plus 0.3% lecytine is suitable as neutralizer. In disinfection with phenolic compounds the 1% twin-80 solution gives good results. As neutralizer of formalin disinfection 2% natrium sulfite solution can be successfully used. For iodoformium disinfection or disinfection with chlor-containing compounds good neutralizing effect can be achieved by 1% solution of natrium thiosulfate.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed2001

Control of mechanical viroid transmission by the disinfection of tables and tools.

Viroids are of practical importance as the cause of several economically significant infectious diseases. Potato spindle tuber viroid (PSTVd) causes severe yield losses in several crops, because the pathogen spreads fast within the culture. Viroids are small molecules, a few hundred nucleotides long, with a high degree of secondary structure. They do not code for any polypeptides and replicate independently of any associated plant virus. Viroids are readily transmitted by contaminated tools and tables. Furthermore PSTVd is transmitted through the pollen and true seed and can remain its infectious activity in seed for long periods. Vector transmission of PSTVd was reported to occur at low frequency. However, the mechanical transmission is the predominant factor and in this case we discuss the efficient disinfection of tools and tables as a main prophylactic trail to avoid viroid transmission. In previous studies we have tested the efficiency of several disinfectants to eliminate virus contamination. This paper demonstrates the efficient disinfection of MENNO-Florades (Menno-Chemie-GmbH, Norderstedt, Germany. A selection of different concentrations of the disinfectant and various times of incubation were applied in regard to practical use. The tests were confirmed by biological assays using suitable indicator plants, tissue print hybridization, gel electrophoresis and by nucleic acid hybridization. It was shown that PSTVd was eliminated when using the determined combination: 2% of the disinfectant while incubating for one minute or alternative 3%, 30 seconds. The possibility of viroid inactivation by a chemical method of disinfection--while plants are not affected--opens a new perspective to control viroid transmission via tools and tables.

Agriculture↗