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PubMed2001

Locus coeruleus noradrenergic lesions attenuate intraoral intake.

I.p. injections of DSP-4 in male rats decreased norepinephrine (NE) levels to varying degrees throughout the brain with 66.7% reductions in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. Intake of intraorally infused sucrose was reduced for 14 days but daily pellet intake recovered within 5 days post-injection. Intraventricular NE restored intraoral sucrose intake in DSP-4-lesioned rats without affecting controls. Intraventricular infusion of neuropeptide Y (NPY) reduced intraoral intake in controls but had no effect in DSP-4-lesioned rats. NPY markedly inhibited intraoral intake in DSP-4-treated rats that also received NE. These data confirm studies showing that NPY decreases consummatory ingestive behavior and suggest that this inhibition involves ascending noradrenergic projections from locus coeruleus.

Adrenergic Agents↗
PubMed2002

Effects of amisulpride on consummatory negative contrast.

Two groups of rats, 'shifted' (32-4% sucrose) and 'unshifted' (4-4% sucrose), were given access to sucrose solutions for 5 min/day for 10 days. On day 11, shifted animals had access to a devalued incentive (4% sucrose) and subgroups of each group received doses of amisulpride (10 or 60 mg/kg, i.p.) or its vehicle before a 10-min access period to sucrose solutions. Lick frequency was measured both pre- and post-shift. A high dose of amisulpride reduced successive negative contrast (SNC) after a brief period of exposure to the devalued stimulus, whereas a low dose had no effect. The acute effects of high doses of amisulpride seem to act on contrast effects in a similar way to anxiolytic compounds such as the benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide.

Amisulpride↗
PubMed2003

Dopamine activity in the nucleus accumbens during consummatory phases of oral ethanol self-administration.

UNLABELLED: BACKGROUND This present study was designed to clarify the role of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens during operant ethanol self-administration by separating bar pressing (ethanol seeking) from ethanol consumption. Furthermore, we sought to define the relationship between ethanol in the brain and the accumbal dopamine response after oral self-administration of ethanol. METHODS: Two separate groups of male Long-Evans rats were trained to bar press with 10% ethanol or water. Rats were trained to elicit an escalating number of bar presses across daily sessions before gaining access to the drinking solution for 20 min. Microdialysis was performed before (during a waiting period), during, and after bar pressing and drinking. A handling control group was included, but did not receive training. RESULTS: A significant increase in dopamine occurred during placement of the rats into the operant chamber in trained rats and handling controls. The lever-pressing period did not produce an increase in dialysate dopamine. Accumbal dopamine was increased in the first 5 min of ethanol, but not water, consumption. Ethanol appeared in the dialysate sample following ethanol availability, and peak concentrations were reached at 10 min. Most of the ethanol and water consumption occurred within 5 min of fluid access. The probes were distributed in the core (32%), shell (32%), and core plus shell (36%) regions of the nucleus accumbens. CONCLUSIONS: The enhancement of dopamine during transfer into the operant chamber does not depend on anticipation or operant training with ethanol or water reinforcement. Furthermore, the difference between the time course of accumbal dopamine and ethanol in dialysates suggests that the dopamine response is not solely due to pharmacological effects of ethanol. The dopamine response may be associated with the stimulus properties of ethanol presentation, which would be strongest during consumption.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed1988

Hyperresponsiveness to stress: differential effects of prenatal ethanol on males and females.

In this study we investigated the hypothesis that pituitary-adrenal response inhibition is compromised in animals prenatally exposed to ethanol. In the first experiment, we examined whether opportunity to perform a consummatory response reduces the adrenocortical response to a novel test cage. Animals were water deprived for 24 hr and tested in one of three conditions: (a) removed from home cage, blood sample obtained immediately; (b) placed into empty novel cage, blood sample obtained 30 min later; (c) placed into novel cage with water available, blood sample obtained 30 min later. All animals showed an increase in corticoids over basal levels following 24-hr water deprivation, and placement into a novel cage produced a further significant increase in corticosterone. Opportunity to drink reduced the corticosterone response to novelty for all males. However, fetal ethanol-exposed females showed significantly less attenuation of their corticosterone response to novelty than both pair-fed and control females. In the second experiment, we examined adrenocortical habituation to a stressful stimulus. Animals were restrained in plastic tubes which restricted movement, and blood samples were obtained following 30 or 60 min of restraint. All animals showed significant corticoid elevations at 30 min. Males showed no change in corticoids from 30 to 60 min while both pair-fed and control females showed a corticoid decrease at 60 min. Fetal ethanol-exposed females, however, showed no significant corticoid decrease at 60 min.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1971

Basic drives.

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Age Factors↗
PubMed2004

Peripheral ghrelin injections stimulate food intake, foraging, and food hoarding in Siberian hamsters.

Fasting triggers many effects, including increases in circulating concentrations of ghrelin, a primarily stomach-derived orexigenic hormone. Exogenous ghrelin treatment stimulates food intake, implicating it in fasting-induced increases in feeding, a consummatory ingestive behavior. In Siberian hamsters, fasting also stimulates appetitive ingestive behaviors such as foraging and food hoarding. Therefore, we tested whether systemic ghrelin injections (3, 30, and 200 mg/kg) would stimulate these appetitive behaviors using a running wheel-based food delivery system coupled with simulated burrow housing. We also measured active ghrelin plasma concentrations after exogenous ghrelin treatment and compared them to those associated with fasting. Hamsters had the following: 1) no running wheel access, free food; 2) running wheel access, free food; or 3) foraging requirement (10 revolutions/pellet), no free food. Ghrelin stimulated foraging at 0-1, 2-4, and 4-24 h postinjection but failed to affect wheel running activity not coupled to food. Ghrelin stimulated food intake initially (200-350%, first 4 h) across all groups; however, in hamsters with a foraging requirement, ghrelin also stimulated food intake 4-24 h postinjection (200-250%). Ghrelin stimulated food hoarding 2-72 h postinjection (100-300%), most markedly 2-4 h postinjection in animals lacking a foraging requirement (635%). Fasting increased plasma active ghrelin concentrations in a time-dependent fashion, with the 3- and 30-mg/kg dose creating concentrations of the peptide comparable to those induced by 24-48 h of fasting. Collectively, these data suggest that exogenous ghrelin, similar to fasting, increases appetitive behaviors (foraging, hoarding) by Siberian hamsters, but dissimilar to fasting in this species, stimulates food intake.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Rapid dopaminergic signaling by interneurons that contain markers for catecholamines and GABA in the feeding circuitry of Aplysia.

Consummatory feeding behaviors in Aplysia californica are controlled by a polymorphic central pattern generator (CPG) circuit. Previous investigations have demonstrated colocalization of markers for GABA and catecholamines within two interneurons, B20 and B65, that participate in configuring the functional output of this CPG. This study examined the contributions of GABA and dopamine (DA) to rapid synaptic signaling from B20 and B65 to follower cells that implement their specification of motor programs. Pharmacological tests did not substantiate the participation of GABA in the mediation of the excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) from either B20 or B65. However, GABA and the GABA(B) receptor agonist baclofen were found to modify these signals in a target-specific manner. Several observations indicated that DA acts as the neurotransmitter mediating fast EPSPs from B20 to two radula closer motor neurons B8 and B16. In both motor neurons, application of DA produced depolarizing responses associated with decreased input resistance and increased excitation. B20-evoked EPSPs in both follower cells were occluded by exogenous dopamine and blocked by the DA antagonist sulpiride. While dopamine occlusion and sulpiride block of convergent signaling to B8 from B65 resembled that of B20, both of these actions were less potent on the rapid signaling from B65 to the multifunctional and widely acting interneuron B4/5. These findings indicate that dopamine mediates divergent (B20 to B16 and B8) and convergent (B20 and B65 to B8) rapid EPSPs from two influential CPG interneurons in which it is colocalized with GABA-like immunoreactivity.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Identification and characterization of catecholaminergic neuron B65, which initiates and modifies patterned activity in the buccal ganglia of Aplysia.

Catecholamines are believed to play an important role in regulating the properties and functional organization of the neural circuitry mediating consummatory feeding behaviors in Aplysia. In the present study, we morphologically and electrophysiologically identified a pair of catecholaminergic interneurons, referred to as B65, in the buccal ganglia. Their processes innervate both the ipsi- and contralateral neuropil, and separate branches of B65 appeared to innervate the somata of both ipsi- and contralateral B4/5 neurons. B65 exhibited patterned burst(s) of activity during spontaneous cycles of fictive feeding. Patterned activity in B65 also was elicited by stimulation of the radula nerve, by depolarization of the pattern initiating neurons B31/32 or B63, and by bath application of -3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA). B65 appeared to be a member of the protraction group of neurons. Action potentials in B65 elicited fast one-for-one excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) in neurons B4/5, B8A/B, B31/32, B63, and B64. In turn, B31/32 and B63 excited B65 and B64 inhibited B65. Some of the synaptic connections of B65 were plastic. For example, the fast EPSPs elicited in B4/5 and B64 decremented, whereas those in B31/32 andB8A/B facilitated. In addition to fast EPSPs, B65 elicited slow postsynaptic potentials in some of its follower cells. Depolarization of B65 elicited cycles of patterned activity indicative of fictive feeding in buccal neurons, including B65 itself. During series of B65-induced patterns, the properties of the buccal motor programs appeared to change. In particular, the activity of radula closure motor neurons B8A/B, which initially coincided mainly with the protraction phase of a cycle, gradually extended to overlap mostly with the retraction phase. This observation suggests that prolonged activity in B65 may play a role in transitioning from rejection-like to ingestion-like fictive feeding. The phase shift of the activity of B8A/B appears due, at least in part, to a decrease in activity of B4/5, and thus a reduction in inhibition from B4/5 onto B8A/B, during the retraction phase. The functional properties and synaptic connections of B65 suggest that it may play an important role in determining features of patterned neural activity in the buccal ganglia.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed1999

Citrate ions enhance taste responses to amino acids in the largemouth bass.

The glossopharyngeal (IX) taste system of the largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides, is highly selective to amino acids and is poorly responsive to trisodium citrate; however, IX taste responses to specific concentrations of L- and D-arginine and L-lysine but not L-proline were enhanced by citrate but not sodium ions. Binary mixtures of L-arginine (3 x 10(-4)M and 10(-3)M) or D-arginine (10(-3)M) + trisodium citrate (10(-3)M; pH 7-9) resulted in enhanced taste activity, whereas binary mixtures of higher concentrations (10(-2)M and 10(-1)M) of L- or D-arginine + 10(-3)M trisodium citrate were not significantly different from the response to the amino acid alone. Under continuous adaptation to 10(-3)M citrate, taste responses to L-arginine were also enhanced at the identical concentrations previously indicated, but responses to 10(-2)M and 10(-1)M L-arginine were significantly suppressed. Under continuous adaptation to 10(-2)M L-arginine, taste responses to 10(-2)M, 10(-1)M, and 10(0) M citrate were significantly enhanced. Cellular concentrations of both citrate and amino acids in prey of the carnivorous largemouth bass are sufficient for this taste-enhancing effect to occur naturally during consummatory feeding behavior. Citrate acting as a calcium chelator is presented as a possible mechanism of action for the enhancement effect.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2002

Reduction in preference for saccharin by repeated unpredictable stress in mice and its prevention by imipramine.

The present study set out to establish the chronic mild stress (CMS) animal model of depression in male CD-1 mice, a commonly used mouse strain. Mice were exposed to a series of mild stressors (e.g. soiled bedding, paired housing, cage tilt, white noise) presented in a continuous unpredictable fashion. Intermittently, CMS was discontinued and the mice were presented with both water and a palatable saccharin solution (0.1% w/v) in a two-bottle choice test overnight (15 h). Repeated exposure of these mice to the stressors led to a reduction in preference for the saccharin solution. This change in preference was attributed to an increase in the consumption of water rather than a decrease in the consumption of saccharin solution. Over time and with extensive testing, CMS no longer affected performance in the two-bottle saccharin preference test. Treatment with the tricyclic antidepressant imipramine (20 mg/kg i.p., once daily) had a varied effect on the CMS-induced change in preference for saccharin, dependent on the timing of initiation of imipramine treatment. In the first instance, following 5 weeks of CMS where a reduction in saccharin preference was established, treatment with imipramine for a further 5 weeks maintained the stress-induced deficit in saccharin preference. However, using a different approach, pre-treatment with imipramine once daily for 2 weeks, prior to onset of CMS, and co-treatment thereafter, attenuated CMS-induced changes in saccharin preference. Finally, when imipramine treatment was scheduled to begin with the CMS procedure, imipramine failed to prevent the CMS-induced reductions in saccharin preference. Changes in behaviour observed after exposure to CMS may be linked to a stress-induced deterioration of the sensitivity of the mice to a rewarding stimulus. Treatment with imipramine can reduce these behavioural changes but is only effective when given repeatedly prior to onset of CMS.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Comparative neuroethology of feeding control in molluscs.

Over the last 30 years, many laboratories have examined, in parallel, the feeding behaviour of gastropod molluscs and the properties of the nervous system that give rise to this behaviour. Equal attention to both behavioural and neurobiological issues has provided deep insight into the functioning of the nervous system in generating and controlling behaviour. The conclusions derived from studies on gastropod feeding are generally consistent with those from other systems, but often provide more detailed information on the behavioural function of a particular property of the nervous system. A review of the literature on gastropod feeding illustrates a number of important messages. (i) Many of the herbivorous gastropods display similarities in behaviour that are reflected in corresponding similarities in neural anatomy, pharmacology and physiology. By contrast, the same aspects of the behaviour of different carnivorous species are quite variable, possibly because of their specialised prey-capture techniques. Nonetheless, some aspects of the neural control of feeding are preserved. (ii) Feeding in all species is flexible, with the behaviour and the physiology adapting to changes in the current environment and internal state and as a result of past experience. Flexibility arises via processes that may take place at many neural sites, and much of the modulation underlying behavioural flexibility is understood at a systems and at a cellular level. (iii) Neurones seem to have specific functions that are consistent with their endogenous properties and their synaptic connections, suggesting that individual neurones code specific pieces of information (i.e. they are 'grandmother cells'). However, the properties of a neurone can be extremely complex and can be understood only in the context of the complete neural circuit and the behaviour that it controls. In systems that are orders of magnitude more complex, it would be impossible to understand the functional properties of an individual neurone, even if it also coded specific information. (iv) Systems such as gastropod feeding may provide a model for understanding the functional properties of more complex systems.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Cystine/glutamate exchange regulates metabotropic glutamate receptor presynaptic inhibition of excitatory transmission and vulnerability to cocaine seeking.

Withdrawal from chronic cocaine reduces extracellular glutamate levels in the nucleus accumbens by decreasing cystine/glutamate exchange (xc-). Activating xc- with N-acetylcysteine restores extracellular glutamate and prevents cocaine-induced drug seeking. It was hypothesized that the activation of xc- prevents drug seeking by increasing glutamatergic tone on presynaptic group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR2/3) and thereby inhibiting excitatory transmission. In the first experiment, the capacity of glutamate derived from xc- to regulate excitatory transmission via mGluR2/3 was determined. Physiological levels of cystine (100-300 nm) were restored to acute tissue slices from the nucleus accumbens or prefrontal cortex. Cystine increased glutamate efflux and decreased miniature EPSC (mEPSC) and spontaneous EPSC (sEPSC) frequency as well as evoked EPSC amplitude. These effects of cystine were presynaptic, because there was no change in mEPSC or sEPSC amplitude, and an increase in the evoked EPSC paired-pulse facilitation ratio. The cystine-induced reduction in EPSCs was reversed by blocking either xc- or mGluR2/3. In the second experiment, blocking mGluR2/3 prevented the ability of N-acetylcystine to inhibit the reinstatement of drug seeking in rats trained to self-administer cocaine. These data demonstrate that nonsynaptic glutamate derived from xc- modulates synaptic glutamate release and thereby regulates cocaine-induced drug seeking.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed1986

Factors affecting prolactin secretion during the breeding cycle of the ring dove (Streptopelia risoria) and its possible role in incubation.

Plasma prolactin began to increase significantly about 5 days after the onset of incubation in both sexes of the dove to reach a peak at the time of hatch. At this time, the concentration of prolactin in the plasma of the female was significantly higher than in the male. In the middle of the incubation period prolactin levels measured over a 24-h period remained constant in both sexes, although the male sits during the middle of the day and the female for the rest of the time. Nest deprivation resulted in a sharp, significant decline in the concentration of prolactin in both sexes. Newly hatched squabs stimulated the release of prolactin only in those doves which had been incubating eggs for several days. A distinct sex difference was observed in the expression of nest defence behaviour of the ring dove during the breeding cycle. At the time of laying, the female was significantly more aggressive than the male and her aggression increased only slightly up to the time of hatching. In contrast, male aggression increased gradually from a low level at laying to reach a peak at the time of hatching. The levels of plasma progesterone in the female showed a significant increase around the time of lay. No significant changes occurred in the plasma concentration of either progesterone or 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone in the male. Administration of prolactin increased the length of time of incubation of infertile eggs. Nest manipulations which had the effect of inducing the doves to begin incubation 4 days before laying showed that (1) the length of time of incubation of infertile eggs is fixed and independent of events which occur at courtship or oviposition, (2) the initiation of the increase in plasma prolactin concentration during incubation is independent of events which occur at courtship and oviposition and (3) the termination of incubation is always preceded by a fall in the concentration of plasma prolactin. It is concluded that the length of time of incubation is dependent upon sustained raised levels of plasma prolactin. The concentration of plasma prolactin increases several days after the onset of incubation in response to the tactile stimulation of sitting. High levels, if maintained by visual stimulation from the nest, maintain incubation for a fixed period. After this, if the eggs fail to hatch, prolactin levels fall and the doves cease incubation and begin a new cycle.

Animals↗
PubMed1967

A method for increasing the reinforcement magnitude of intracranial stimulation.

Schedules of intermittent brain-stimulation reinforcement have been shown to maintain performances when a reinforcement is defined as several response-produced, brief trains of stimulation. The present experiments show that the number of response-produced trains permitted per reinforcement is a variable analogous to amount or magnitude of reinforcement in the conventional food-reinforcement experiment. Systematic effects were obtained when that variable was manipulated within a multiple schedule and also on variable-interval schedules programmed concurrently.

Animals↗