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PubMed2005

[The efficacy of non-pharmacological interventions in the management of pain in preterm and term neonates. A systematic literature review].

Many diagnostic and therapeutic procedures performed in the neonatal intensive care unit are painful for the preterm or term infant. Pain is therefore a central issue in neonatal intensive care nursing. As significant side effects are associated with analgesics, non-pharmacological methods of pain prevention and relief are being favoured over pharmacological therapy. This development is very important for the nursing profession since non-pharmacological interventions are determined and carried out without an order from a physician. This review of the current literature investigates the efficacy of non-pharmacological nursing interventions in the management of pain in the neonatal intensive care unit. Despite certain methodological problems with some of the studies included in this review, the trend favours non-pharmacological interventions. Modulation of arousal and excitability during and after a painful stimulus as well as an effect on physiological and behavioural parameters have been described following non-pharmacological interventions. The studies reviewed suggest that neonates show fewer signs of pain and stress after non-pharmacological interventions for prevention and relief of pain.

Analgesics↗
PubMed2001

Remission induction therapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: clinical and cellular pharmacology of vincristine, corticosteroids, L-asparaginase and anthracyclines.

Remission induction therapy with vincristine, a corticosteroid, L-asparaginase and an anthracycline has been the mainstay of the initial phase of treatment for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) for the past 25 years. The speed and depth of the early response to remission induction therapy has become an important determinant of the intensity of subsequent therapy in many protocols worldwide. Moreover, the detection of significant levels of minimal residual disease at the end of remission induction may have an important bearing on subsequent outcome. Although these clinical observations may reflect, in part, the inherent sensitivity of lymphoblasts to remission induction therapy, the pharmacology of these agents in relation to childhood ALL may also play an important part in early response to therapy. In-vitro studies of human leukaemia cell lines indicate that both the extracellular fluid concentration and duration of exposure to vincristine and anthracyclines are important determinants of cytotoxicity. For L-asparaginase and corticosteroids, the cellular and molecular pharmacological determinants of chemosensitivity have been partially characterized, but further work is needed in this area. The clinical pharmacology of vincristine and L-asparaginase have been well characterized in relation to childhood ALL, and considerable interpatient pharmacokinetic variability exists for these drugs. For corticosteroids and anthracyclines, pharmacology studies are needed in order to fully characterize and understand the factors influencing interpatient pharmacokinetic variability for these agents in relation to childhood ALL. Whereas the relationship between the clinical pharmacology, and potentially important pharmacodynamic effects such as asparagine depletion, has been well characterized for therapy with L-asparaginase, similar studies have yet to be performed for the other drugs that form the mainstay of remission induction therapy for childhood ALL. Therefore, further studies are required to investigate the relative importance of the clinical and cellular pharmacology of vincristine, corticosteroids, L-asparaginase and anthracyclines in the speed and depth of response to remission induction therapy for childhood ALL. Where these have been studied, interindividual differences in the clinical and cellular pharmacology of anticancer agents have been shown to be important determinants of the long-term disease-free survival for children with ALL.

Antibiotics, Antineoplastic↗
PubMed2003

Pharmacological indices in antibiotic therapy.

After 60 years of antibiotic treatment, attempts to rationalize it have culminated in the use of pharmacological indices. These indices facilitate comparison of the activity of different antibiotics and serve as a sound basis for antibiotic dosing. Pharmacokinetic parameters (e.g. AUC, Cmax) and pharmacodynamic parameters (mostly MIC) are used for this purpose. For the so-called concentration-dependent antibiotics, the pharmacological indices AUC/MIC and Cmax/MIC are used, whereas for time-dependent antibiotics, the pharmacological index T>MIC is used. Some authors believe that the index AUC/MIC can be used as a universal index, but, not all experts accept this generalization. As the various pharmacological indices have been defined inconsistently in the literature, the International Society for Anti-Infective Pharmacology (ISAP) has published a paper on the terminology of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters and the pharmacological indices. This paper will help to ensure uniform use of terminology. In addition, we point out that the use of pharmacological indices should consider the differences in pharmacokinetics (patient characteristics and localization of the infection) and the differences in pharmacodynamics of antibiotics (beyond MICs) with different pathogens (e.g. Gram-positive and Gram-negative).

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗
PubMed2006

The quality of pharmacologic care for adults in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Despite rising annual expenditures for prescription drugs, little systematic information is available concerning the quality of pharmacologic care for adults in the United States. We evaluated how frequently appropriate pharmacologic care is ordered in a national sample of U.S. residents. METHODS: The RAND/UCLA Modified Delphi process was used to select quality-of-care indicators for adults across 30 chronic and acute conditions and preventive care. One hundred thirty-three pharmacologic quality-of-care indicators were identified. We interviewed a random sample of adults living in 12 metropolitan areas in the United States by telephone and received consent to obtain copies of their medical records for the most recent 2-year period. We abstracted patient medical records and evaluated 4 domains of the prescribing process that encompassed the entire pharmacologic care experience: appropriate medication prescribing (underuse), avoidance of inappropriate medications (overuse), medication monitoring, and medication education and documentation. A total of 3,457 participants were eligible for at least 1 quality indicator, and 10,739 eligible events were evaluated. We constructed aggregate scores and studied whether patient, insurance, and community factors impact quality. RESULTS: Participants received 61.9% of recommended pharmacologic care overall (95% confidence interval 60.3-63.5%). Performance was lowest in education and documentation (46.2%); medication monitoring (54.7%) and underuse of appropriate medications (62.6%) performance were higher. Performance was best for avoiding inappropriate medications (83.5%). Patient race and health services utilization were associated with modest quality differences, while insurance status was not. CONCLUSIONS: Significant deficits in the quality of pharmacologic care were seen for adults in the United States, with large shortfalls associated with underuse of appropriate medications. Strategies to measure and improve pharmacologic care quality ought to be considered, especially as we initiate a prescription drug benefit for seniors.

Adult↗
PubMed2007

A pretest prognostic score to assess patients undergoing exercise or pharmacological stress testing.

OBJECTIVE: A previously developed pretest score was validated to stratify patients presenting for exercise testing with suspected coronary disease according to the presence of angiographic coronary disease. Our goal was to determine how well this pretest score risk stratified patients undergoing pharmacological and exercise stress tests concerning prognostic endpoints. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort analysis. SETTING: University hospital stress laboratory. PATIENTS: 7452 unselected ambulatory patients with symptoms of suspected coronary disease undergoing stress testing between 1995 and 2004. MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES: All-cause death, cardiac death and non-fatal myocardial infarction. RESULTS: The rate of all-cause death was 5.5% (CI 5.0 to 6.1) with 4.3 (SD 2.4) years of follow-up (Exercise 2.8% (CI 2.3 to 3.2) v Pharmacological group 11.9% (CI 10.5 to 13.3); p<0.001). The rate of cardiac death/myocardial infarction was 2.6% (CI 2.2 to 3.0) (Exercise 1.4% (CI 1.1 to 1.8) v Pharmacological group 5.3% (CI 4.3 to 6.2); p<0.001). In both groups, stratification by pretest score was significant for all-cause death and the combined endpoint. However, stratification was more effective in the pharmacological group using the combined endpoint rather than all-cause death. Pharmacological stress patients in intermediate and high risk groups were at higher risk than their respective exercise test cohorts. Referral for pharmacological stress testing was found to be an independent predictor of time to death (2.7 (CI 2.0 to 3.6); p<0.001). CONCLUSION: A pretest score previously validated to stratify according to angiographic outcomes, effectively risk stratified pharmacological and exercise stress patients according to the combined endpoint of cardiac death/myocardial infarction.

Adrenergic beta-Agonists↗
PubMed1994

Value and limits of pharmacological and physiological tests to diagnose growth hormone (GH) deficiency and predict therapy response: first and second retesting during replacement therapy of patients defined as GH deficient.

There is currently a debate about the use of pharmacological and physiological tests to define GH deficiency and predict response to GH therapy. In addition, a good response to therapy has also been described in subjects without GH deficiency. For further information, we reevaluated GH secretion during replacement therapy in a group of children defined as GH deficient and examined response to therapy in the subjects subdivided according to secretion. One hundred eighty four children (113 boys and 71 girls) initially diagnosed with GH deficiency by means of pharmacological (peak < 8 micrograms/L after arginine and L-dopa tests) and physiological tests (mean nocturnal concentration < or = 3.3 micrograms/L during sleep test) underwent the same tests 2.8 +/- 1.1 yr after start of GH therapy. Sixty eight patients were retested 1.5 +/- 0.4 yr after first retesting. At diagnosis 122 subjects had pathological pharmacological and physiological tests (group A), 30 subjects normal sleep test with pathological pharmacological tests (group B), and 32 subjects pathological sleep test with normal pharmacological tests (group C). At diagnosis 140 subjects were prepubertal and 44 pubertal. To evaluate response to therapy in relation to GH secretion at diagnosis and at both retestings, a number of auxological parameters were calculated during treatment. At first retesting, 107 subjects (58.1%) changed initial group of diagnosis, 34 of whom (18.5%) presented normal secretion in both pharmacological and physiological tests (group D). At second retesting, 31 of the 68 subjects reexamined (45.6%) changed first test results, and 33 (48.5%) reverted to the initial group of diagnosis; none of the 6 subjects of group D maintained normal secretion. Although the percentage of normalized subjects was higher in pubertal subjects (36.4%; P = 0.0003) than prepubertal subjects (8.9%), puberty did not prevent a reduction of secretion in some subjects. Response treatment during the first year of therapy was similar in the various groups. GH secretion seems to change in both prepubertal and pubertal children diagnosed with GH deficiency when pharmacological and physiological tests are repeated over time. Moreover, such tests may not represent a reliable tool for predicting response to treatment. GH secretion normalization at retesting may not necessarily represent the end of a transient secretory defect.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Pharmacologic management of insomnia in children and adolescents: consensus statement.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this work was to develop a consensus statement on the current status and future role for pharmacologic management of insomnia in children and adolescents. METHOD: The National Sleep Foundation, in collaboration with Best Practice Project Management, Inc, convened expert representatives involved in the study and treatment of pediatric insomnia and conducted a 2-day conference to examine the role of pharmacologic management of pediatric insomnia and to make recommendations regarding the development of clinical trials in this area. After a series of presentations providing background on the current knowledge of pediatric insomnia and its treatment alternatives, workgroups provided recommendations for the evaluation of pharmacologic treatment of insomnia in specific populations of children and adolescents and developed guidelines for the core methodologic issues relevant to the design of clinical trials. The group developed consensus recommendations for clinical trials in this area encompassing: (1) high-priority patient populations for research, (2) inclusion/exclusion criteria, (3) outcome measures, (4) ethical considerations unique to clinical trials involving children and adolescents, and (5) priorities for future research that will enhance the understanding of pediatric insomnia. RESULTS: Conference participants unanimously agreed that there is a need for pharmacologic management of pediatric insomnia. Furthermore, the widespread use of "hypnotic" and psychotropic medications for children in the absence of safety and efficacy data indicates a knowledge gap about the best pharmacologic practices for management of pediatric insomnia. Attendees reached consensus on methodologic issues in the study of pharmacologic treatment of pediatric insomnia including agreeing on a definition of pediatric insomnia as "repeated difficulty with sleep initiation, duration, consolidation, or quality that occurs despite age-appropriate time and opportunity for sleep and results in daytime functional impairment for the child and/or family." It was agreed that priority should be given to insomnia studies in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and those with pervasive developmental disorders/autism spectrum disorder. There was also agreement on the need for pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies to determine appropriate dose levels and to evaluate safety with a wide range of doses. CONCLUSIONS: The treatment of pediatric insomnia is an unmet medical need. Before appropriate pharmacologic management guidelines can be developed, rigorous, large-scale clinical trials of pediatric insomnia treatment are vitally needed to provide information to the clinician on the safety and efficacy of prescription and over-the-counter agents for the management of pediatric insomnia.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Left atrial and appendage mechanical function after pharmacological or electrical cardioversion in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation: a multicenter, randomized study.

BACKGROUND: Transient atrial and appendage dysfunction occurs after cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. It has been suggested that one component of early dysfunction is related to the method of restoration of sinus rhythm and it is less severe in patients undergoing pharmacological than electrical cardioversion. The aim of this study was to compare left atrial chamber and left atrial appendage mechanical function before and after 48 hours from electrical or pharmacological cardioversion in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation. METHODS: We studied the effects of the mode of cardioversion on Doppler left atrial and appendage function in 19 patients with persistent atrial fibrillation (> or = 4 weeks), who were randomized to pharmacological (quinidine) or electrical cardioversion (protocol: 200, 300, 360 J) after pre-treatment with verapamil. Transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiography were performed before and 48 hours after the restoration of sinus rhythm. To determine left atrial and appendage mechanical dysfunction, the peak A wave velocities were obtained from transmitral flow velocity profiles recorded in the apical 4-chamber view, and peak emptying and filling appendage velocities were measured by the transesophageal approach with the sample volume placed at the orifice of the left atrial appendage. All the patients were pre-treated with verapamil before cardioversion in order to achieve a satisfactory control of heart rate. RESULTS: Mean peak A wave velocities were 0.52 +/- 0.12 m/s in the patients treated electrically and 0.54 +/- 0.08 m/s in those treated pharmacologically (p = NS). Before and after electrical cardioversion, the peak filling velocities of the left atrial appendage were 0.42 +/- 0.17 and 0.43 +/- 0.17 m/s respectively, and the peak emptying velocities 0.30 +/- 0.14 and 0.36 +/- 0.17 m/s respectively; before and after pharmacological treatment, the peak filling velocities were 0.38 +/- 0.1 and 0.43 +/- 0.1 m/s respectively, and the peak emptying velocities were 0.30 +/- 0.13 and 0.43 +/- 0.24 m/s respectively (p = 0.08). CONCLUSIONS: Even a long period of atrial fibrillation does not lead to a marked depression of global left atrial and left atrial appendage function 48 hours after the restoration of sinus rhythm by means of electrical or pharmacological cardioversion. There is no evidence that electrical cardioversion causes greater post-cardioversion atrial and/or appendage dysfunction than pharmacological treatment after 48 hours. Pre-treatment with verapamil may have reduced the dysfunction (probably because of a reduction in mechanical remodeling during atrial fibrillation).

Aged↗
PubMed2000

[Non-pharmacological medical interventions based on evidence. An exploratory study].

BACKGROUND: Non-pharmacological interventions prescribed are a frequent component of the medical practice mainly in ambulatory settings and also require a sound scientific basis. Our purpose was to estimate the proportion of evidence based non-pharmacological medical interventions in the clinical practice of an ambulatory setting. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Medical interventions present in 150 medical records were review from a systematic sample. The evidence for the interventions was searched in Medline (1986-1997). They were classified according the presence of supporting experimental evidence for each of the intervention. RESULTS: We found 92 different primary diagnosis. A 25% were non-pharmacological interventions and the rest mostly pharmacological. A 80% of the non-pharmacological were evidence based. The most frequent non-pharmacological interventions were those related to cardiovascular disease (diet, physical exercise, etc.), followed by upper respiratory tract infections (hydration), low back pain (physical therapy, rest or both), constipation (diet, exercise) and gastro-enteritis (diet). Only hydration or the respiratory tract lacks experimental based evidence. CONCLUSIONS: There are experimental evidence for the non-pharmacological interventions revised, easily accessible but unevenly distributed and with effectiveness issues remaining controversial.

Cross-Sectional Studies↗
PubMed1995

Might non-pharmacological treatment disadvantage patients with hypertension?

Weight reduction, moderate salt restriction and alcohol reduction are effective in lowering blood pressure (BP), and are feasible interventions for long-term management of hypertension. When used in combination these non-pharmacological measures are significantly inferior to drug therapy in anti-hypertensive effect. When they are implemented as a first step in the treatment of mild hypertension, resorting to drug therapy only if non-pharmacological measures fail, anti-hypertensive drugs can be avoided in about 40% of patients. However, BP control is again significantly inferior with this strategy compared with drug therapy without non-pharmacological advice. Those given advice on non-pharmacological measures may therefore have suboptimal protection against cardiovascular complications. This is particularly so when the threshold for drug treatment is set at a DBP of > or = 100 mmHg, as many patients will be left untreated with DBPs between 90 and 99 mm Hg as a result of non-pharmacological measures. Non-pharmacological treatment may thus stand between patients and anti-hypertensive drug therapy, which nowadays is simple, well-tolerated, safe and proven effective in preventing cardiovascular disease. The role of non-pharmacological therapy needs to be reconsidered.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Education in clinical pharmacology at the Rijeka School of Medicine, Croatia.

OBJECTIVE: Irrational drug prescribing is a global problem that exists both in developed and developing countries. Education is the key to improved effectiveness and safety in drug therapy. Development of clinical pharmacology (CP) as an independent discipline at the Rijeka School of Medicine has been slow and unsatisfactory. It was taken only as a part of some postgraduate courses. In the 1995/1996 academic year clinical pharmacology was offered for the first time to sixth year medical students as a non-mandatory subject. The purpose of this study was to emphasize the importance of education in clinical pharmacology at the Rijeka School of Medicine. METHODS: This survey was an uncontrolled study based on responses to questionnaires and a test consisting of written patient problems given to sixth year medical students and to general practitioners who were following a course in clinical pharmacology. RESULTS: The results of the questionnaire showed that both undergraduate and postgraduate students consider that they are not being adequately trained to prescribe drugs rationally and that they believe that clinical pharmacology should become a mandatory subject in the undergraduate medical curriculum. The results of the written patient problem test support this. Both groups of students demonstrated greater skills in solving the diagnostic part than the therapeutic part of the test. A great improvement in the students' ability to solve the therapeutic part was observed after they had completed the CP course. CONCLUSION: The results of this survey underline the necessity of education in clinical pharmacology.

Croatia↗
PubMed2002

Safety pharmacology and risk assessment.

Evaluation of experimental drugs in animals for effects on critical organ systems allows identification of functional signals of efficacy and safety that can be subsequently monitored in human clinical trials. The International Conference on Harmonization (ICH), 'Guidelines on Safety Pharmacology', finalized in 2000, defined critical organ systems (cardiovascular, respiratory and central nervous system) and functions to be evaluated, and points to consider for study design and conduct. The new Safety Pharmacology guidelines recognise that while in vitro studies of molecular targets (enzymes, receptors, ion channels, etc.) suggest mechanisms by which chemicals might impact organisms, organ functions are complex, integrative, and most usefully evaluated in their totality, in intact and ideally unanesthetized animal models. Signals identified from safety pharmacology studies are candidates for biomarkers, which when established/validated, can enhance cross-species-based risk assessments and risk management in clinical trials. This review will briefly trace the origins of modern safety pharmacology and discuss practical issues related to the identification and application of signals generated from safety pharmacology studies. The QT interval from the electrocardiogram is currently the 'most validated' of those signals ('biomarkers') generated from safety pharmacology studies and is presented as an example of the utility and the difficulties faced by safety pharmacologists attempting to predict risk in humans based upon physiological measurements conducted in animal studies.

Animals↗
PubMed1980

Survey of clinical pharmacology programs in U.S. and Canadian medical schools.

In this paper the authors report the results of a survey carried out by the Association for Medical School Pharmacology for the purpose of identifying and assessing the status of developing clinical pharmacology programs in medical schools in the United States and Canada. A questionnaire was mailed to 110 U.S. and 16 Canadian medical schools. Eighty-one schools in the United States and nine Canadian schools responded to the survey. There were 47 programs in clinical pharmacology in the United States and Canada which had an identifiable head of clinical pharmacology and three known programs which did not respond (total 50). The methods used in teaching clinical pharmacology involved, for the most part, lectures, clerkships, clinical rounds, and consultations. The major recommendations resulting from this survey are to continue a vigorous approach in the training of more clinical pharmacologists to carry out effective teaching, service, and research programs in clinical pharmacology in medical centers; to improve the service activities related to consultation on drugs; and to continue research on new and established drugs.

Budgets↗
PubMed1997

Teaching pharmacology to advanced practice nursing students: issues and strategies.

A pharmacology course should prepare the advanced practice nursing student to understand the cellular mechanisms of drug action and physiologic outcomes (pharmacodynamics); mechanisms of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs (pharmacokinetics); and the clinical use of drugs in the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of disease (pharmacotherapeutics). The goal of a pharmacology course for advance nursing practice is to provide practitioners with knowledge that provides a rational basis for pharmacologic management of patients with complex health problems. A pharmacology course should teach the student the principles of pharmacology along with the process of pharmacologic reasoning.

Curriculum↗
PubMed1986

Third Report on the Organization of Pharmacology in Great Britain.

The results presented in this Report on the Organization of Pharmacology in the United Kingdom are based on replies to questionnaires sent out in 1983. In addition to academic and industrial research and development (R&D) departments we also surveyed industrial departments of toxicology, sales, clinical liaison and medical information, as well as specialized research units with no formal teaching function. The overall response rate was 87%. Since the last Report in 1971, the total number of pharmacologists has doubled to 2220, and they are now almost equally distributed between Universities and Industry. The most striking feature has been a major (3 fold) increase in the total number of industrial pharmacologists to 1014. In contrast, there was only a 1.3 fold increase in the number (99) of pharmacologists in established academic posts, over half of which are in the new departments of clinical pharmacology. Of the established pharmacologists in academic departments only 8% were less than 30 years of age and 22% over 50, whereas in industrial R&D departments the corresponding figures were 44% and 6% respectively. Since 1971 the proportion of pharmacy graduates in established academic or industrial R&D posts has fallen from 30% to 13% but the proportion with a medical qualification is almost unchanged. In academic departments, there was a net loss of established staff during 1982 and 1983 compared with a net gain of almost 100 appointments in industrial departments. The major single cause of academic pharmacologists leaving posts was early retirement, whilst in the industrial sector the major single destination was another industrial department. In 1983, 227 students graduated with a special B.Sc. degree in Pharmacology compared with 67 in 1971. The same period saw a decline in pharmacy students specializing in pharmacology (293 to 204) and the emergence of Joint Honours courses that include pharmacology. Pharmacology students who graduated in 1983 were also sent a questionnaire. From those responding (57%) over 90% were satisfied with their course and over 80% considered it adequate preparation for their future occupation. At the time of the survey in 1983, only 8% of students graduating in 1982 were unemployed, but all of the 1982 postgraduates were employed.

Employment↗
PubMed2003

Teaching separate versus integrated pharmacology content.

With recent media attention on medication errors in nursing practice (Berens, 2000), nursing curricula must include a method of teaching pharmacology that promotes student learning. The purpose of this nonexperimental, descriptive exploratory study was to retrospectively compare two delivery methods: integrated pharmacology content throughout a 4-year curriculum and a separate pharmacology course offered during the sophomore year. Data, from a convenience sample of 299 senior nursing students who wrote the National League for Nursing computerized adaptive pharmacology test, were analyzed using chi-square. Findings demonstrated that teaching a separate pharmacology course did not result in an increase in scores. Faculty are, therefore, encouraged to plan defined content enhancement throughout the curriculum when pharmacology is taught as a separate course.

Chi-Square Distribution↗
PubMed2005

Selection of information resources for education in medical pharmacology.

Pharmacology is the foundation science of medical pharmacotherapy. Education in medical pharmacology (EP) requires the use of information resources (IR) to meet the challenge of the continuous introduction of new drugs and new educational, didactic and pedagogical theories to enhance knowledge. Hence criteria for selecting bibliographic material for EP should be clearly outlined and implemented. In this work we present a method to select IR for EP based on systems theory and focusing on the factors determining: (a) the integration of a list of recommended IR for EP; (b) the design of the acquisition list for faculty and students work; (c) the overall organization of the resources available for its optimal use and benefit in the educational process; and (d) a general strategy for assessing the impact of the bibliographic infrastructure. The proposal is based on information from: (i) lists of recommended readings in the academic program of the Pharmacology course given at the School of Medicine of UNAM in the last 30 years; (ii) the extent of discipline development measured by two indexes derived from the contents of Goodman and Gilman's "Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics" (G & G); (iii) the number of texts currently found in the collection of FM-UNAM which are classified in the section of Pharmacology using the Library of Congress Classification System (LCCS); and (iv) the comparison of academic versus standardized classification of pharmacology topics, such as Medical Subject Heading (MESH) and LCCS The importance of this proposal relates to its usefulness for EP and for other medical disciplines.

Books↗
PubMed1977

Pharmacology national board examinations: factors that may influence performance.

Data from a survey of pharmacology courses in 60 dental schools were used to determine whether certain teaching variables affect performance in pharmacology National Board examinations. In addition, three-year class-averaged pharmacology scores and, rarely, one-year averaged scores were correlated with several admissions variables. While correlations between some admissions variables and pharmacology scores were quite good, the averaged pharmacology scores were not powerfully affected by course length, placement of the course in the curriculum, length of the curriculum, or the presence of a dentally trained pharmacologist in the department. It is suggested that other factors, related to the student and his capabilities, influence performance on National Boards. Dental pharmacology courses should be designed to given students the best possible exposure to an important basic science, not to make them perform well on National Boards, because student performance on National Boards may be independent of the nature of the didactic courses.

Certification↗