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PubMed1995

Microsatellites evolve more rapidly in humans than in chimpanzees.

Microsatellites are highly polymorphic markers consisting of varying numbers of tandem repeats. At different loci, these repeats can consist of one to five nucleotides. Microsatellites have been used in many fields of genetics, including genetic mapping, linkage disequilibrium analyses, forensic studies, and population genetics. It is important that we understand their mutational processes better so that they can be exploited optimally for studies of human diversity and evolutionary genetics. We have analyzed 24 microsatellite loci in chimpanzees, East Anglians, and Sub-Saharan Africans. The stepwise-weighted genetic distances between the humans and the chimpanzees and between the two human populations were calculated according to the method described by Deka et al. (1994, Genomics 22, 226-230). The ratio of the genetic distances between the chimpanzees and the humans relative to that between the Africans and the East Anglians was more than 10 times smaller than expected. This suggests that microsatellites have evolved more rapidly in humans than in chimpanzees.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Molecular definition of pericentric inversion breakpoints occurring during the evolution of humans and chimpanzees.

High-resolution G-banding analysis has demonstrated remarkable morphological conservation of the chromosomes of the Hominidae family members (humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans), with the most notable differences between the genomes appearing as changes in heterochromatin distribution and pericentric inversions. Pericentric inversions may have been important for the establishment of reproductive isolation and speciation of the hominoids as they diverged from a common ancestor. Here the previously published primate karyotype comparisons, coupled with the resources of the Human Genome Project, have been used to identify pericentric inversion breakpoints seen when comparing the human karyotype to that of chimpanzee. Yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) clones were used to detect, by fluorescence in situ hybridization, five evolutionary pericentric inversion breakpoints present on the chimpanzee chromosome equivalents of human chromosomes 4, 9, and 12. In addition, two YACs from human 12p that detect a breakpoint in chimpanzee detect a similar rearrangement in gorilla.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Analysis of a bone assemblage made by chimpanzees at Gombe National Park, Tanzania.

Chimpanzee hunting provides information on prey characteristics and constraints acting on a large-bodied primate lacking a hunting technology, and has important implications for modeling hunting by fossil hominids. Analysis of the remains of five red colobus monkeys captured and consumed by Gombe chimpanzees in a single hunting bout provides one of the first opportunities to investigate the characteristics of prey bones surviving chimpanzee consumption. Four of the five individuals (an older infant, two juveniles and one subadult) were preserved in the bone assemblage; a neonate was entirely consumed. Cranial and mandibular fragments had the highest survivorships, followed by the scapulae and long bones. Post-cranial axial elements had the lowest survivorships. A high percentage (80%) of the long bones and ribs surviving consumption were damaged, most commonly through crenulation and step fracturing of bone ends. One of two partially reconstructed crania preserves a canine puncture through its left parietal. Proposed characteristics of faunal assemblages formed through chimpanzee-like hunting include small modal prey size, limited taxonomic diversity, a high proportion of immature individuals and a high frequency of skull bones. These characteristics would not uniquely identify hunting by fossil primates in the geological record, necessitating a contextual approach to diagnose hunting by hominids not forming an archeological record. Hominid utilization of vertebrate tissue is first unambiguously documented at 2.5 m.y.a. Rather than representing a strict "scavenging phase" in the evolution of hominid-prey interactions, Oldowan hominid carnivory may represent the overlay of large mammal scavenging on a tradition of small mammal hunting having a low archeological visibility.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

The complete nucleotide sequence of a pre-core mutant of hepatitis B virus implicated in fulminant hepatitis and its biological characterization in chimpanzees.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) with an in-frame stop codon within the pre-core region of the virus genome caused fulminant hepatitis in two individuals. Serum from a chronically infected patient who was the source of the virus was inoculated into three chimpanzees at dilutions of 10(-1), 10(-3), and 10(-7). All three chimpanzees developed acute hepatitis B with relatively high peak values of liver enzymes in their serum. The complete nucleotide sequence of virus DNA recovered from the chimpanzee serum by enzymatic amplification was identical with that from the human serum. By comparing the sequence of this strain (HT) with that of 32 published HBV genomes, changes in nucleotides and predicted amino acids that were rarely or never found in other HBV isolates were identified. Thirteen such nucleotides were found within the cis-acting regulatory elements, of which 6 were within the enhancer II-core promoter region. Twenty-four rare or unique changes in amino acids were found in open reading frames, of which 15 occurred in the region that spanned the 3' half of the X gene, through the pre-core/core gene, to the 5' end of the polymerase gene. Thus, an HBV pre-core stop mutant implicated in fulminant hepatitis is highly infectious, induces severe hepatitis in chimpanzees, and possesses significant genetic variation from reported HBV isolates.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

A molecular clone of HIV-1 tropic and cytopathic for human and chimpanzee lymphocytes.

Previous studies of HIV-1 replication in chimpanzee lymphocytes have been limited to a small number of virus isolates which generally replicated poorly and without cytopathic effect. Here, we describe an HIV-1 provirus (SG3), cloned as a single proviral unit, which replicates more efficiently in chimpanzee than in human lymphocytes, resulting in syncytium formation and cell death. This provirus also replicates efficiently and with extraordinary cytopathic effect in immortalized human T-cell lines. The SG3 genome was completely sequenced and found to contain all genes typical of HIV-1 with the exception of vpu. Phylogenetically, SG3 is representative of North American/European strains of HIV-1 and shows no greater similarity to SIVCPZ in its envelope sequence than do other HIV-1 strains. Pilot studies indicate that SG3 can infect and replicate in chimpanzees and SCID-hu mice in vivo following intravenous or intrathymic inoculation. The SG3 proviral clone, because of its replication efficiency in human and chimpanzee cells and its complete molecular description, represents a new virologic reagent for the coordinated molecular analysis of HIV-1 replication and pathogenesis in relevant animal model systems.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed1996

Complete sequencing of a gibbon hepatitis B virus genome reveals a unique genotype distantly related to the chimpanzee hepatitis B virus.

We have sequenced the complete genome of a hepatitis B virus (HBV) strain that was transmitted from a gibbon with chronic hepatitis B to a chimpanzee that subsequently developed acute hepatitis B. The genome was 3,182 nucleotides long and had a genetic organization identical to and including the characteristics of other mammalian hepadnaviruses. Thus, the regulatory elements, the direct repeats, and the four open reading frames (ORFs) of this virus were all maintained, although there were amino acid substitutions affecting all the ORFs. Within the S gene encoding for the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), the subtype could be deduced as ayw3 in accordance with previous serological results. There were 25 amino acid substitutions affecting the P gene, 12 of which were within the spacer region. This region, which was the most divergent part of the genome compared to other HBV strains, also encodes for the pre-S proteins. A comparison with sequences of other hepadnaviruses revealed that the genome of gibbon HBV was unique as compared to previously described HBV genotypes. It was most similar to the chimpanzee HBV strain with which it shared 90.3% nucleic acid homology at the level of the complete genome and 96.3% homology at the level of the S-gene region corresponding to HBsAg, although being a distinct genotype as compared to the latter virus. Analyses performed using five different algorithms for phylogenetic tree construction showed more than 99% bootstrap support for the gibbon and the chimpanzee HBV to be grouped within the human HBV strains and that they represented later offshoots than the HBV strains of genotype F. However, in most of the dendrograms both the gibbon and the chimpanzee strains represented early lineages, indicating that these viruses are indigenous to their respective hosts and not recent acquisitions from man.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2000

Related TT viruses in chimpanzees.

A series of serum specimens obtained from two chimpanzees experimentally infected with hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis C virus, and hepatitis G/GB-C virus were tested for TT virus (TTV) by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). All PCR fragments obtained from both animals were directly sequenced, and the nucleotide sequences were compared to each other and to all known TTV sequences. This comparison showed that both animals were infected simultaneously with four new TTV variants designated A, M1, M2, and M3. One chimpanzee was found to be infected with TTV only after HAV inoculation, whereas the other animal was infected with TTV before any experimental procedure was performed. A set of PCR primers specific for these four new TTV variants was used to amplify TTV-like sequences from nine naive chimpanzees. None of these animals was infected with the prototype TTV variant. Two of these animals, however, were infected with one of the new TTV variants, while one animal was infected with an additional new TTV variant designated T. Among 99 hepatitis patients, 29 were found to be infected with the prototype TTV variant. None of these human specimens was found to be positive by PCR specific for TTV variants A, M1, M2, and M3. Similarly, not a single specimen from a smaller subset of human serum samples was found to be positive for the TTV variant T. Phylogenetic analysis performed on all known TTV sequences demonstrated that TTV can be classified into 13 different, yet closely related TTV species, designated as TTV-I for the prototype variant through TTV-XIII. The new variants M1 and M2 were classified as two different genotypes of TTV-VI, variant M3 was classified as TTV-VII, variant A was classified as TTV-VIII, and variant T was classified as TTV-IX. Thus, the data obtained in this study suggest that TTV represents a large swarm of TTV-like species, some of which have not been detected in humans and circulate predominantly among chimpanzees.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Mobility of short interspersed repeats within the chimpanzee lineage.

The PV subfamily of Alu repeats in human DNA is largely composed of recently inserted members. Here we document additional members of the PV subfamily that are found in chimpanzee but not in the orthologous loci of human and gorilla, confirming the relatively recent and independent expansion of this Alu subfamily in the chimpanzee lineage. As further evidence for the youth of this Alu subfamily, one PV Alu repeat is specific to Pan troglodytes, whereas others are present in Pan paniscus as well. The A-rich tails of these Alu repeats have different lengths in Pan paniscus and Pan troglodytes. The dimorphisms caused by the presence and absence of PV Alu repeats and the length polymorphisms attributed to their A-rich tails should provide valuable genetic markers for molecular-based studies of chimpanzee relationships. The existence of lineage-specific Alu repeats is a major sequence difference between human and chimpanzee DNAs.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Immune response of chimpanzee to purified melanoma 250 kilodalton tumor-associated antigen.

Melanoma high molecular weight tumor-associated antigen (TAA), having a molecular weight of 250 kilodaltons (Kd), was purified from a crude cell membrane extract through a combination of lectin affinity, immunoadsorption, and high performance liquid molecular filtration chromatography. Compared to the starting extract, purified TAA was 600-fold higher in TAA activity per microgram of protein. Purified TAA was used to immunize a chimpanzee and the resulting antiTAA immune response was evaluated. Postimmune chimpanzee serum reacted in solid phase radioimmunoassay against purified TAA with a titer in excess of 100,000. In contrast, preimmune serum had a titer of less than 100 in the same assay. By immunoprecipitation analysis, we were able to demonstrate reactivity of the chimpanzee immune serum with a 250 Kd TAA in spent culture medium from melanoma cells metabolically labeled with 35S-methionine and with iodinated purified 250 Kd TAA. Reactivity of the chimpanzee antiserum for the 250 Kd TAA was confirmed in blocking and reciprocal immunodepletion studies using murine monoclonal antibody 9.2.27. These studies suggest that the 250 Kd TAA defined by murine monoclonal antibodies may prove to be immunogenic in man and that manipulation of the immune response to this TAA might be used to the clinical benefit of the patient.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Human-type blood group activities on chimpanzee erythrocytes with special reference to M and N.

Human-type blood group activities on the red blood cells (RBCs) of three chimpanzees were individually examined with commercial mouse monoclonal antibodies (anti-A, -B, -H, -M, -N, -Lea, and -Leb) as well as lectins (UEA-I and VGA) and conventional polyclonal antisera for the systems ABO, MN, Lewis, Rh-Hr, P, Kell, Kidd, Duffy, and Lutheran. For further analysis of the MN antigens, treatment of the RBCs with sialidase, trypsin, and chymotrypsin were employed. The activities recognized among the three chimpanzees were A, H, M, N, Leb, c, S, k, and Jka. The RBCs of the three individuals possessed the A antigen which showed the same serologic activity as the human A1. Those chimpanzee RBCs showed higher H-activity than the human A1 RBCs. The Lewis b activity was revealed by the absorption-elution method. The RBCs of the three individuals showed a reactivity to the polyclonal anti-M reagents, which was affected by both the sialidase and trypsin treatment. The RBCs of two individuals were agglutinated with the monoclonal anti-N. The receptor was sensitive to sialidase and chymotrypsin. The RBCs of the three individuals, however, did not react with the monoclonal anti-M or with one of the polyclonal anti-N. These results indicate structural differences in the glycophorins and MN antigens between the human and chimpanzee.

ABO Blood-Group System↗
PubMed1992

T-cell receptor gamma/delta: comparison of gene configurations and function between humans and chimpanzees.

The human and chimpanzee T-cell receptor gamma-delta (TCR gamma delta) bearing cells represent a minor subset (3-8%) of T lymphocytes. In the periphery, the TCR gamma delta population has a restricted combinatorial repertoire. The TCRD-V1 and -V2 gene products are expressed in a mutually exclusive fashion, whereas, the TCRD-V2 and the TCRG-V9 encoded proteins show, in general, a coordinated expression. Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis showed conservation of the restriction sites that identify the TCRG-V9 and TCRD-V2 rearrangements. The human TCRG-V9 locus has two alleles, TCRG-V9A1 and TCRG-V9A2 differing at codon position 31. The chimpanzee TCRG-V9 gene product differs from the products of the human TCRG-V9A1 and TCRG-V9A2 allele by two and three amino acid replacements, respectively. The human and the chimpanzee TCRG-V9-TCRD-V2 lymphocytes show a similar specific proliferative and cytolytic response to human Daudi Burkitt's lymphoma cells. Therefore, the amino acid replacements found in the chimpanzee TCRG-V9 gene product do not change the superantigen specificity across this species barrier.

Alleles↗
PubMed1993

Telomeric repeat [TTAGGG]n sequences of human chromosomes are conserved in chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes).

Using a series of genetic parameters, attempts have been made for more than two decades to establish the close kinship of human (Homo sapiens) with chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). Molecular and cytogenetic data presently suggest that the two species are closely related. The recent isolation of a human telomeric probe (P5097-B.5) has prompted us to cross hybridize it to chimpanzee chromosomes in order to explore convergence and/or divergence of the telomeric repeat sequences (TTAGGG)n. On hybridization, the human probe bound to both ends (telomeres) of chimpanzee chromosomes, suggesting a concerted evolution of tandemly repeated short simple sequences (TTAGGG)n. Even the terminal heterochromatin of chimpanzee chromosomes was found to be endowed with telomeric repeats, suggesting that evolution of heterochromatin and capping with tandemly repeated short sequences are highly complex phenomena.

Animals↗
PubMed1975

5-Methylcytosine in heterochromatic regions of chromosomes: chimpanzee and gorilla compared to the human.

Fixed metaphase chromosomes of gorilla and chimpanzee were UV-irradiated to produce regions of single-stranded DNA and then treated with antibodies specific for the minor DNA base 5-methylcytosine (5 MeC). An indirect immunofluorescence technique was used to visualize sites of antibody binding. In the gorilla six pairs of autosomes contained major fluorescent regions, indicating localized regions of highly methylated DNA. These corresponded, with the exception of chromosome 19, to the major regions of constitutive heterochromatin as seen by C-banding. The Y chromosome also contained a highly fluorescent region which was located just proximal to the intense Q-band region. In the chimpanzee no comparable concentrations of highly methylated DNA were seen. Smaller regions of intense 5 MeC binding were present on perhaps six chimpanzee chromosomes, including the Y. Five of these corresponded to chromosomes which were highly methylated in the gorilla.--There is diversity among the human, gorilla and chimpanzee in both the size and location of concentrations of 5 MeC, supporting the idea that satellite DNA evolves more rapidly than DNA in the remainder of the chromosome.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Multiple recombinational events in primate immunoglobulin epsilon and alpha genes suggest closer relationship of humans to chimpanzees than to gorillas.

Immunoglobulin epsilon and alpha genes of chimpanzee and gorilla were isolated and their structures were compared with their human counterparts. Multiple deletions and duplications seem to have happened in both genes during hominoid evolution; the chimpanzee had deleted the entire C epsilon 2 gene after its divergence. In addition, the length of the C alpha 1 hinge region of gorilla is distinct from those of chimpanzee and humans. Structural homology of the epsilon and alpha genes suggests that humans are evolutionarily closer to chimpanzees than to gorillas.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

The pattern of restriction enzyme-induced banding in the chromosomes of chimpanzee, gorilla, and orangutan and its evolutionary significance.

The pattern of banding induced by five restriction enzymes in the chromosome complement of chimpanzee, gorilla, and orangutan is described and compared with that of humans. The G banding pattern induced by Hae III was the only feature common to the four species. Although hominid species show almost complete chromosomal homology, the restriction enzyme C banding pattern differed among the species studied. Hinf I did not induce banding in chimpanzee chromosomes, and Rsa I did not elicit banding in chimpanzee and orangutan chromosomes. Equivalent amounts of similar satellite DNA fractions located in homologous chromosomes from different species or in nonhomologous chromosomes from the same species showed different banding patterns with identical restriction enzymes. The great variability in frequency of restriction sites observed between homologous chromosome regions may have resulted from the divergence of primordial sequences changing the frequency of restriction sites for each species and for each chromosomal pair. A total of 30 patterns of banding were found informative for analysis of the hominid genealogical tree. Using the principle of maximum parsimony, our data support a branching order in which the chimpanzee is more closely related to the gorilla than to the human.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Characterization of chimpanzee-hamster hybrids by chromosome painting.

A panel of chimpanzee-human somatic cell hybrids was characterized by dual Alu-PCR of the chimpanzee DNA in the hybrid and subsequent hybridization of the labeled PCR products to human and chimpanzee chromosomes. In addition to the identification of the intact chimpanzee chromosomes retained in each hybrid, chromosome fragments were identified that will be useful in regional mapping. This technique also revealed the presence of centric inversions.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Video-task acquisition in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): a comparative analysis.

This study describes video-task acquisition in two nonhuman primate species. The subjects were seven rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) and seven chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). All subjects were trained to manipulate a joystick which controlled a cursor displayed on a computer monitor. Two criterion levels were used: one based on conceptual knowledge of the task and one based on motor performance. Chimpanzees and rhesus monkeys attained criterion in a comparable number of trials using a conceptually based criterion. However, using a criterion based on motor performance, chimpanzees reached criterion significantly faster than rhesus monkeys. Analysis of error patterns and latency indicated that the rhesus monkeys had a larger asymmetry in response bias and were significantly slower in responding than the chimpanzees. The results are discussed in terms of the relation between object manipulation skills and video-task acquisition.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Polymorphisms and gross structure of glycophorin genes in common chimpanzees.

Using human alpha glycophorin cDNA probe and six restriction enzymes, we examined the homologues of human glycophorin genes in genomic DNA of 11 unrelated chimpanzees. We show that, in contrast to the human, the chimpanzee exhibits an unusual array of nonrandomly distributed restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP). No clear correlation was found between the RFLP and the V-A-B-D blood-group phenotypes of the subjects, with one possible exception. However, pairs of allelic RFLP occurring at a relatively high frequency were identified. In addition, the homology of chimpanzee glycophorin genes to the human genes was examined using as probes synthetic oligonucleotides specifying distinct regions of human glycophorin genes. We show that the glycophorin gene family in the chimpanzee consists of at least three members that are homologous to the human alpha, delta, and E genes (glycophorins A, B, and E) and may share a similar gross structure and overall organization.

Alleles↗