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PubMed2002

Intrinsic sinus and atrioventricular node electrophysiologic adaptations in endurance athletes.

OBJECTIVES: In the present study, we evaluated sinus and atrioventricular (AV) node electrophysiology of endurance athletes and untrained individuals before and after autonomic pharmacologic blockade. BACKGROUND: Endurance athletes present a higher prevalence of sinus bradycardia and AV conduction abnormalities, as compared with untrained individuals. Previous data from our laboratory suggest that nonautonomic factors may be responsible for the longer AV node refractory period found in well-trained athletes. METHODS: Six aerobically trained male athletes and six healthy male individuals with similar ages and normal rest electrocardiograms were studied. Maximal oxygen uptake (O(2)max) was measured by cardiopulmonary testing. The sinus cycle length (SCL), AV conduction intervals, sinus node recovery time (SNRT), Wenckebach cycle (WC) and anterograde effective refractory period (ERP) of the AV node were evaluated by invasive electrophysiologic studies at baseline, after intravenous atropine (0.04 mg/kg) and after addition of intravenous propranolol (0.2 mg/kg). RESULTS: Athletes had a significantly higher O(2)max as compared with untrained individuals. The SCL was longer in athletes at baseline, after atropine and after the addition of propranolol for double-autonomic blockade. The mean maximal SNRT/SCL was longer in athletes after atropine and after propranolol. The WC and anterograde ERP of the AV node were longer in athletes at baseline, after atropine and after propranolol. CONCLUSIONS: Under double-pharmacologic blockade, we demonstrated that sinus automaticity and AV node conduction changes of endurance athletes are related to intrinsic physiology and not to autonomic influences.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1986

Tachyarrhythmias in young athletes.

Nineteen young athletes with documented symptomatic tachyarrhythmia were systematically evaluated. There were 15 men and 4 women, aged 14 to 32 years (mean 22 +/- 6). Documented tachyarrhythmias were paroxysmal atrial fibrillation in five patients, paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia in five, paroxysmal ventricular tachycardia in eight (sustained in five, nonsustained in three) and ventricular fibrillation in one patient. Abnormal substrates were demonstrated in 15 (79%) of the 19 athletes: 5 had an anomalous atrioventricular (AV) pathway and 10 had heart disease (mitral valve prolapse in 9 patients and dilated cardiomyopathy in 1 patient). In 13 (68%) of the 19 athletes, all spontaneous attacks of tachyarrhythmia had started during strenuous exercise. Tachyarrhythmia that closely resembled clinical arrhythmia was induced by programmed cardiac stimulation in 13 athletes (68%) and was reproducibly provoked by treadmill exercise in 8 athletes (42%). In four of seven athletes with ventricular tachycardia, tachycardia closely resembling clinical arrhythmia was provoked by infusion of isoproterenol. In summary: young athletes can have any of several tachyarrhythmias; abnormal substrates can be demonstrated in many athletes with symptomatic tachyarrhythmia; and tachyarrhythmias in young athletes frequently occur during exercise.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Prevalence of sudden cardiac death during competitive sports activities in Minnesota high school athletes.

OBJECTIVES: Reliable prevalence data would be useful in assessing the impact of sudden cardiac death in young competitive athletes on the community and designing effective preparticipation screening strategies. BACKGROUND: The frequency with which these catastrophes occur is largely unknown. METHODS: We utilized a circumstance unique to Minnesota in which the precise number of participants and deaths due to cardiovascular disease could be ascertained over a substantial period of time based on a long-standing insurance program for catastrophic injury or death, mandatory for all student athletes engaged in interscholastic sports. RESULTS: Over the 12-year period, 1985/1986 to 1996/1997, inclusive, three sudden deaths due to cardiovascular disease occurred in competitive high school athletes (grades 10-12) during competition or practice. At autopsy, 1 each proved to be due to anomalous origin of the left main coronary artery from the right sinus of Valsalva, congenital aortic valve stenosis (with bicuspid valve) and myocarditis. All three athletes were white and male, 16 or 17 years of age; two competed in cross-country/track and one in basketball. During the study period there were 1,453,280 overall sports participations and 651,695 student athlete participants among the 27 high school sports. The calculated risk for sudden death was 1:500,000 participations and 1:217,400 participants per academic year (or 0.46/100,000, annually). Over a 3-year high school career for a student athlete the estimated risk was 1:72,500. CONCLUSIONS: The risk of sudden cardiac death in a population of high school student athletes was small, in the range of one in 200,000 per year, and was higher in male athletes. The rare occurrence of sudden cardiac death in competitive sports underlines the limitations implicit in structuring productive and cost-effective broad-based preparticipation screening strategies for high school athletes.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Stress fractures and bone health in track and field athletes.

The effect of exercise on bone health has received much attention in recent years. The problems of the female athlete triad: disordered eating, amenorrhea and osteoporosis have helped us to better understand and appreciate the important interaction of mechanical, hormonal, nutritional as well as genetic factors on bone health in the young female athlete. The relatively high stress fracture incidence of young track and field athletes can be quite disabling for the athlete's present and future running career. A number of risk factors including low bone mineral density (BMD), menstrual irregularities, dietary factors and prior history of stress fractures have been associated with an increased risk for stress fractures in the female athlete. Few studies have found risk factors for stress fractures in the male athlete. Female gender has been found to be a risk factor for stress fractures in the military population, but this finding is less apparent in athlete studies. Caucasians have been found to have a higher risk for stress fractures than African-American military recruits, but there is very limited data assessing stress fracture risk in athletes of varying ethnicity. Prevention of stress injury to bone involves maximizing peak bone mass in the pediatric and young adult age groups. Maintaining adequate calcium nutrition, caloric intake as well as hormonal and energy balance are important preventive measures, as are ensuring appropriate amounts of weight bearing exercise for optimizing bone health and preventing fractures. More research is needed to determine factors leading to improvements in bone density and fracture reduction in athletes at risk.

Bone Density↗
PubMed2002

Elite athletes' experiences of the motivational climate: the coach matters.

Recent research investigating the effect of the motivational climate has found that even elite athletes benefit from a mastery climate. The purpose of the present study was to obtain a deeper understanding of the importance of the climate surrounding an athlete and the role of the coach for elite athletes by conducting in-depth interviews with a group of athletes (n=7). The athletes also completed the Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ) and Perception of Motivational Climate Questionnaire (PMCQ) to measure motivational indices. All the athletes were very high on task orientation and moderate to high on ego orientation. Most of the athletes perceived a high mastery climate and a low performance climate. The athletes emphasized the importance of the coach as the creator of the climate, as well as their preference for a supportive and caring climate. This speaks for an emphasis on a mastery climate for elite athletes.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Brain serotonin reuptake did not change during one year in overtrained athletes.

Brain 5-HT neurotransmission has been described to be down-regulated in depressed people, and also suspected to be changed in overtraining state, the consequence of long-term physical overloading and stress in athletes. We studied brain serotonin (5-HT) transporter binding i.e., 5-HT reuptake with the specific radioligand (123-I-labelled 2beta-carbomethoxy-3beta[4-iodopenyl]-nortropane, Nor-beta-CIT), and with single photon emission tomography (SPET) in severely overtrained athletes and their controls at the baseline and after a one-year recovery period. Twelve overtrained (6 women and 6 men, mean age 27 yrs, range 16 - 39 yrs) and 11 healthy (6 women, 5 men, 26 yrs, 20 - 39 yrs) athletes were examined. Overtrained athletes 1) had suffered from an unexplained decrement in physical performance and fatigue for several weeks to many months and continued to have the same symptoms even after a recovery time of weeks to months, 2) had been examined to be otherwise healthy, and 3) had a suitable training history for overtraining. Nor-beta-CIT SPET was acquired 5 min, and 3, 6, and 24 h after the injection of the radioligand. 5-HT reuptake in ml/ml in midbrain (raphe nuclei) was calculated as (midbrain - cerebellum)/cerebellum. According to two-way analysis of variance, no changes inside the groups or group differences in 5-HT reuptake were found. Male athletes had significantly higher 5-HT reuptake than female athletes at the baseline (p = 0.034). The overtrained athletes were moderately depressed, while their scores in standardized Hamilton and Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scales were 16 +/- 2 (mean +/- SEM, range 8 - 29) and 17 +/- 2 (7 - 28), respectively. In the CA, the scores were 6 +/- 1 (range 2 - 18) and 6 +/- 2 (1 - 19), respectively. 5-HT reuptake did not correlate with the depression scores either in the whole group or in the OA. The finding of the present study does not support the idea of long-term changes in 5-HT neurotransmission in overtraining state, in this case serotonin reuptake in midbrain, the regulating area of brain serotonin neurotransmission. Furthermore, depression of overtrained athletes may be its own variant having no correlation with 5-HT reuptake in midbrain. Sex may have effect on chronic stress response at the brain level in athletes, which may be a confusing factor in the overtraining studies, and has to be taken into consideration in the future.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

A comparison of organ-tissue level body composition between college-age male athletes and nonathletes.

The purpose of this study was to compare the characteristics of skeletal muscle (SM) mass and internal organ (liver and kidney) mass in resistance and/or high intensity trained collegiate athletes with nonathletes, and to examine the relationships between fat-free mass (FFM) and its major components of SM, liver mass, and kidney mass. Fifteen athletes and seventeen nonathletes volunteered for the study. FFM was measured by two-compartment densitometry. Contiguous magnetic resonance imaging was used to obtain images from the first cervical vertebrae to the ankle joint (no inter-slice gap) for each subject, and SM, liver and kidney cross-sectional areas and organ-tissue volumes were determined. Organ-tissue volumes (cm (3)) were converted to mass (kg) by multiplying the volumes by the assumed constant density of the tissues. On average, athletes had greater FFM (69.1 kg) than the nonathletes (52.6 kg). SM, liver, and kidney masses in athletes (33.0 kg, 1.84 kg and 0.39 kg, respectively) were higher compared with nonathletes (23.5 kg, 1.39 kg and 0.31 kg, respectively). When the various determinants of FFM were expressed as ratios, it was determined that the ratio of SM mass to FFM was higher in athletes (47.7 %) than nonathletes (44.7 %), and the ratios of liver and kidney to FFM were similar for the two groups (2.6 % and 0.6 %, respectively, for athletes; and 2.7 % and 0.6 %, respectively, for nonathletes). A strong correlation between FFM and SM mass was observed in athletes and nonathletes and the slopes of these regression lines were almost identical and parallel. FFM was also significantly correlated with liver and kidney mass for both athletes and nonathletes. This study suggests that SM, liver, and kidney masses are increased by FFM accumulation in resistance and/or high intensity trained athletes.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Blood gas transport properties in endurance-trained athletes living at different altitudes.

Hemoglobin oxygen binding properties and acid-base status were investigated in Colombian athletes (A) and controls (C) from Cali (C-1000 m) and Bogotá (B-2600 m). [Hb] and Hct values were not influenced by altitude, but Hct was lower in the blood of athletes (in Cali 2.6%, in Bogotá 1.4%). Both training and altitude produced a right-shift of the standard oxygen dissociation curve (P50 in CC 28.5 +/- 0.9 mmHg, AC 31.0 +/- 1.4 mmHg, CB 29.6 +/- 1.5 mmHg) leading to highest P50 in blood of altitude athletes (32.3 +/- 1.1 mmHg). Opposite to the position of the ODC the slope "n" was only increased by altitude influence (delta "n" in controls 0.07, in athletes 0.28). The BCCO2 was increased in AC over the whole saturation range, whereas BCLac was neither significantly influenced by training nor by altitude. All altitude effects can be explained by higher [DPG] (delta[DPG] in controls 5.0 mumol/gHb, in athletes 3.9 mumol/gHb), but the cause for the training effects still remains unclear. The acid base status in altitude residents was characterized by low BE and pCO2, which was most pronounced in altitude athletes, the latter correcting the actual venous pH to normal values. No significant variations of the Hb-O2-binding properties could be detected in athletes one day after leaving high altitude when compared with blood samples of athletes taken at high altitude, whereas BE and venous pCO2 were already increased. It is concluded that high altitude athletes are favoured during aerobic and handicapped during anaerobic exercise after the rapid descent to low altitude.

Acid-Base Equilibrium↗
PubMed1997

Bone density and bone metabolic markers in active collegiate athletes: findings in long-distance runners, judoists, and swimmers.

We investigated the bone metabolic system status of 103 male and female volunteer collegiate athletes, who were actively pursuing one of three different sports: Long-distance running (LR); judo (JU); and swimming (SW). The following parameters were evaluated: total body bone mineral density (TMBD); bone-forming metabolic markers; serum procollagen type I C-peptide (PICP) levels; bone alkaline phosphatase (B-ALP) content; bone resorption markers, urinary pyridinoline (Pyd) and deoxypyridinoline (Dpd) levels. We found that the TBMD and urinary Dpd values in JU athletes were significantly higher (p < 0.001) than in athletes of the same sex in the other two groups. The urinary Pyd level in male JU athletes was also higher (p < 0.001) than that in the other two groups, but that in females JU athletes was only higher (p < 0.01) than that in female LR athletes. The PICP levels were similar to the TBMD values in all groups. No differences in bone density or in bone metabolic markers were seen in LR and SW athletes of the same sex. We thus conclude that differences in bone mineral density are in part due to the demands of the specific sport, and that they are reflected in bone metabolic markers. In addition, the status of bone metabolic turnover in male JU athletes in training may be hypermetabolic and as well as that of female JU athletes with regular menses cycles.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Food attitudes in female athletes: association with menstrual cycle length.

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between indicators of risk of disordered eating, body image and varied menstrual cycle lengths. Altogether, 151 female athletes were invited from 16 sports and 70 female non-athletic controls were recruited from a university lecture class. The participants completed several surveys, including demographics, menstrual cycle history, physical activity, Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) and the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ). Selected EDI subscales were summed to reflect eating disorder risk and body image. Menstrual cyclicity was based on self-reported cycle length for the last 6 months (normal cycles = 26-32 days, irregular cycles < or =26 or >32 days). Athletes overall had more irregular cycles (29.1%) than the non-athletes (15.7%) (P < 0.05). There were significant differences in scores for eating disorder risk, body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, cognitive restraint (TFEQ) and disinhibition (TFEQ), only when athletes were divided based on menstrual cyclicity (i.e. irregularly cycling athletes had higher scores than athletes with normal menstrual cycle lengths). No differences in these scores were found between non-athletes with normal or irregular menstrual cycle lengths. In conclusion, irregularly short or long menstrual cycle length is associated with subtle indications of higher risk of disordered eating in female athletes.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

Muscle mass of competitive male athletes.

The recent publication of the first validated equation for the estimation of muscle mass (MM) in men has made possible a comparison of MM in athletes from different sports. Limb girths and skinfold thicknesses were measured in 62 male athletes (aged 17-38 years) and 13 non-athletic males (aged 22-36 years). The MM (g) was calculated from the equation MM = S(0.0553 Gt2 + 0.0987 Gf2 + 0.0331 Gc2)-2445, where S is stature, Gt is the mid-thigh girth corrected for the front thigh skinfold thickness, Gc is the maximum calf girth corrected for the calf skinfold thickness and Gf is the uncorrected maximum forearm girth (all in cm). The athletes were classified as gymnasts (n = 10), basketball players (n = 10), body-builders (n = 10), track and field power athletes (n = 12), track and field long sprinters (n = 10) or distance runners (n = 10). The MM means ranged from 38.4 kg for the distance runners to 58.7 kg for the body-builders. Both body-builders and basketball players had significantly greater MM than gymnasts, long sprinters, non-athletic males and distance runners (P < 0.01). Also, MM was greater in track and field power athletes than in distance runners (P < 0.05). The MM as a percentage of body mass (%MM) ranged from 56.5% in the non-athletic group to 65.1% in the body-builders; body-builders scored higher than basketball players (P < 0.05), distance runners (P < 0.01) and the non-athletic group (P < 0.01).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1990

The health of university athletes: attitudes, behaviors, and stressors.

This study examined several aspects of the health of university athletes. Five areas of concern were targeted for investigation: general health background, use of drugs and alcohol, weight and eating behaviors, stress, and use of helping resources. The authors developed a questionnaire and used it to survey 27 varsity athletic teams at a major private university. The incidence of injuries was high; one third of the 247 student athletes surveyed reported sport-related injuries. Alcohol was much more frequently used than other drugs, and use tended to decrease during the competitive season. Significant differences between men and women athletes were found in off-season alcohol and marijuana use. Anabolic steroid abuse did not appear to be a major problem for this athlete population. Issues of diet, weight, and body image were found to be significantly different for women than for men. Although the incidence of bulimia and anorexia was low for both female and male athletes, it was clear that female athletes brought to their sport heightened concern for body image. The authors discuss the psychological and interpersonal implications that these findings have for the adjustment of female athletes. Injury and academics were perceived as the most stressful factors for both men and women, whereas weight and diet issues were a major stress factor for one third of the women. Given these data, specific recommendations are made for health professionals who work with college athletes.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Long-term follow-up of laparoscopic preperitoneal hernia repair in professional athletes.

BACKGROUND: "Athletic pubalgia" is a term often used to describe the insidious onset of groin pain in professional athletes. This pain may be caused by a range of musculoskeletal conditions. The diagnosis of occult or "sports" hernia must be considered in athletes who do not respond to conservative treatment modalities directed at these entities. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Fifteen professional athletes were treated for sports hernia by a single surgeon between February 1994 and June 2000. Laparoscopic hernia repairs were performed using an extraperitoneal approach. Athletes presented with symptoms lasting several months to several years. Long-term follow-up was obtained by phone to assess overall patient satisfaction, efficacy of surgery, and effect on athletic performance. RESULTS: Nearly all (87%) of the athletes were able to return to full, unrestricted athletic activity in 4 weeks or less. Overall long-term satisfaction was high. Long-term follow-up revealed no adverse sequelae or recurrence of symptoms at a median of 46 months. CONCLUSION: Laparoscopic preperitoneal hernia repair should be considered as a treatment modality in athletes presenting with chronic groin pain.

Adult↗
PubMed1987

Interrelationships of diet, athletic activity, menstrual status, and bone density in collegiate women.

We undertook a case-control study to examine the effect of nutritional factors on menstrual function and bone density in collegiate athletes. Three groups, matched with respect to age, height, and weight, were studied: eumenorrheic collegiate athletes, oligomenorrheic collegiate athletes, and eumenorrheic sedentary collegiate control subjects. Menarche was delayed in the eumenorrheic (13.1 y) and oligomenorrheic (14.3 y) athletic groups compared with the sedentary control subjects (12.2 y) (p less than 0.05). Average bone density tended (p = 0.10) to be lower in the oligomenorrheic athletes (158 mg/mL) compared with the eumenorrheic athletes (184 mg/mL) or sedentary control subjects (173 mg/mL). Dietary fiber intake was significantly elevated (p less than 0.05) in the oligomenorrheic athletes (5.74 g/d) compared with the eumenorrheic athletes (3.62 g/d) or sedentary control subjects (2.97 g/d). We conclude that increased dietary fiber intake is associated with menstrual dysfunction of these collegiate athletes. These factors may contribute to decreased bone density.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Effects of aging on cardiorespiratory responses to brief and intense intermittent exercise in endurance-trained athletes.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of aging on athletes' cardiorespiratory responses to a brief intense intermittent effort, using the force-velocity test as an exercise model. Twelve young athletes (24.8 +/- 1.3 years) and twelve master athletes (65.1 +/- 1.2 years) with similar heights, body masses, and endurance training schedules participated in this study. They performed both a maximal graded exercise and the force-velocity tests. The force-velocity test consisted of the repetition of 6-second sprints against increasing braking forces with 5-minute recovery periods. None of the subjects presented abnormal electrocardiogram responses to the tests. During the force-velocity test, the heart rate magnitudes of response in all subjects were correlated to the corresponding sprint power output (p < .001), with higher values for the young athletes (p < .001). Both groups had similar systolic blood pressure peaks of response during the force-velocity test. Both groups had similar preexercise and end-of-recovery oxygen consumption (VO2), but the young athletes had higher peaks of response (p < .001). The VO2 magnitudes of response increased during the test (p < .01) in all subjects, with higher values for the young athletes (p < .001). There was a positive correlation between the VO2 magnitude of response and (1) the corresponding sprint power output (R = .58,p < .001) and (2) the corresponding number of sprint repetitions (R = .29, p < .02). The young athletes had higher end-of-recovery and peak carbon dioxide production (VCO2) responses than the master athletes (p < .001). Pulmonary ventilation (V(E)) peaks of response to the sprints were higher in the young athletes (p < .001). There was a positive relation between the V(E) and VCO2 peaks of response (R = 84,p < .001). In both groups the peak heart rate, VO2, VCO2, and V(E) values attained during the force-velocity test represented similar percentages of the maximal values reached at exhaustion of maximal graded exercise. These results showed that aging does not alter the percentage of the cardiorespiratory response to a brief intense intermittent exercise such as the force-velocity test. Moreover, the arterial blood pressure response is not significantly altered, whereas the vasodilatatory response is.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Anaerobic work capacity in elite wheelchair athletes.

To study the anaerobic work capacity in wheelchair athletes, 67 elite wheelchair athletes (50 male) were studied in a 30-second sprint test on a computer-controlled wheelchair ergometer during the World Championships and Games for the Disabled in Assen (1990). The experimental set-up (ergometer, protocol) proved to be adequate in terms of power output (P30, P5) velocity and heart rate. Male and female athletes were comparable with respect to personal characteristics (age, body weight, training hours). Track athletes (classified in 4 different functional classes) showed a class-related mean power output (P30: mean power produced during the 30-second sprint period) of 23, 68, 100, and 138 W for the male athletes (n = 38) and 38, 77, and 76 W for females in the upper three classes (n = 10). Sprint power was low for the group of subjects with cerebral palsy (35 W; mixed, n = 6) and relatively high for the amputee group (121 W; mixed, n = 6), female basketball players (81 W; n = 5), and two male field athletes (110 W). Significant differences between male and female athletes were found for P30 and P5 (highest mean power output over any of the six 5-second periods). As was to be expected, mean maximum heart rate in the sprint test varied significantly between the track groups from 112 (high lesion group) to 171 beats/minute(-1) (low lesion group) but not for both genders. The lower P30 in the T1 and T2 groups must be explained not only by the reduced functional muscle mass and impaired coordination but also by phenomena of cardiovascular dysfunction. Based on the performance parameters, the functional classification of the track athletes into four groups seems adequate. P30 was significantly associated with the personal characteristics of gender and hours of training. A significant correlation was found between P30 and sprint performance times for 200 meters (r = -0.79). No correlation was found between either of the forms of power output and the marathon times. Anaerobic wheelchair work capacity can be adequately studied with the 30-second sprint test that was used in this study. Anaerobic work capacity is highly variable among elite wheelchair athletes with different disabilities and from different sports disciplines and appeared quite strongly influenced by functionality, hours of training, and gender.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Joint Position Statement: nutrition and athletic performance. American College of Sports Medicine, American Dietetic Association, and Dietitians of Canada.

It is the position of the American Dietetic Association, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine that physical activity, athletic performance, and recovery from exercise are enhanced by optimal nutrition. These organizations recommend appropriate selection of food and fluids, timing of intake, and supplement choices for optimal health and exercise performance. This position paper reviews the current scientific data related to the energy needs of athletes, assessment of body composition, strategies for weight change, the nutrient and fluid needs of athletes, special nutrient needs during training, the use of supplements and nutritional ergogenic aids, and the nutrition recommendations for vegetarian athletes. During times of high physical activity, energy and macronutrient needs-especially carbohydrate and protein intake-must be met in order to maintain body weight, replenish glycogen stores, and provide adequate protein for building and repair of tissue. Fat intake should be adequate to provide the essential fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins, as well as to help provide adequate energy for weight maintenance. Overall, diets should provide moderate amounts of energy from fat (20% to 25% of energy); however, there appears to be no health or performance benefit to consuming a diet containing less than 15% of energy from fat. Body weight and composition can affect exercise performance, but should not be used as the sole criterion for sports performance; daily weigh-ins are discouraged. Consuming adequate food and fluid before, during, and after exercise can help maintain blood glucose during exercise, maximize exercise performance, and improve recovery time. Athletes should be well-hydrated before beginning to exercise; athletes should also drink enough fluid during and after exercise to balance fluid losses. Consumption of sport drinks containing carbohydrates and electrolytes during exercise will provide fuel for the muscles, help maintain blood glucose and the thirst mechanism, and decrease the risk of dehydration or hyponatremia. Athletes will not need vitamin and mineral supplements if adequate energy to maintain body weight is consumed from a variety of foods. However, supplements may be required by athletes who restrict energy intake, use severe weight-loss practices, eliminate one or more food groups from their diet, or consume high-carbohydrate diets with low micronutrient density. Nutritional ergogenic aids should be used with caution, and only after careful evaluation of the product for safety, efficacy, potency, and whether or not it is a banned or illegal substance. Nutrition advice, by a qualified nutrition expert, should only be provided after carefully reviewing the athlete's health, diet, supplement and drug use, and energy requirements.

Altitude↗
PubMed2001

Left ventricular function and perfusion in elderly endurance athletes.

PURPOSE: To study the extent to which lifelong physical training can affect cardiovascular capacity, left ventricular function, and myocardial perfusion in elderly men. METHODS AND RESULTS: Ten healthy male veteran endurance athletes aged 73 +/- 3 yr (mean +/- SD) and a control group of 12 sedentary or moderately physically active healthy subjects aged 75 +/- 2 yr were studied. Echocardiographic examinations at rest and exercise stress tests were performed. Gated blood pool scans and myocardial perfusion scintigraphy were recorded at rest and during exercise. Maximal VO2 was 41 +/- 7 mL.kg-1.min-1 in the athletes and 26 +/- 5 mL.kg-1.min-1 in the controls (P < 0.001). Echocardiographic measures of systolic and diastolic function at rest were better in the athletes. The ejection fraction during exercise was also higher in the athletes (P = 0.003). Seven of the 10 athletes, but none of the controls, had pathological myocardial perfusion findings. CONCLUSIONS: By endurance training, a high level of physical capacity can be maintained late in life. The superior cardiovascular function in the veteran athletes, compared with the untrained controls was due to both better systolic and diastolic left ventricular function. Myocardial perfusion defects in athletes should be judged with caution, as this finding is common both in veteran athletes and as previously shown, in young athletes.

Aged↗