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PubMed2006

Does therapeutic reference pricing always result in cost-containment? The Hungarian evidence.

Therapeutic reference pricing is one of the potential cost containment methods for pharmaceuticals. The most critical question of reference pricing is how to select reference product(s) if their efficacy is different, especially if different strengths of the same substance are available. Authors describe the Hungarian experience related to the introduction of therapeutic reference pricing for statin therapies as of 1 September 2003. The National Health Insurance Fund selected the reference products based on their low price per DDD. Therapeutic reference pricing was expected to reduce the expenditure on statins by switching therapy to cheaper alternatives and therefore decreasing the average price per prescribed unit. The National Health Insurance Fund expected price erosion not only for branded products directly affected by generics but even for patented ones. Despite generic price erosion of simvastatin, the average unit price of statins was reduced by only 3% at 7 months after the introduction of the reference pricing system. During the same period the average DDD per prescription was increased from 1.14 to 1.65. The price of patented statins did not change over this period. Introduction of therapeutic reference pricing neglected evidence-based medicine results and ultimately increased the expenditure on statins in Hungary. Selection of the cheapest DDD per unit as the reference product resulted in growth of DDD per prescription, and consequently increased price per prescribed unit of statins. The failure of the system could have been even more dramatic if increased utilisation of generic statins had not reduced the negative effect of therapeutic reference pricing. Based upon the first experiences of the Hungarian implementation, the method described in this paper for the extension of generic reference pricing to therapeutic categories is not justifiable.

Cost Control↗
PubMed2000

Evidence-based practice and reviews of therapeutic touch.

PURPOSE: To present principles for accurately representing research for evidence-based practice and health care policies, and to evaluate how original research results indicated adherence to those principles in literature reviews of therapeutic touch. ORGANIZING CONSTRUCTS: Critical thinking and scientific integrity. SOURCES: Reviews of therapeutic touch literature published in nursing journals between 1994 and 1998 and the research studies cited in those reviews. METHODS: Statements made in reviews about the efficacy of therapeutic touch were compared with the results and conclusions of the research cited. General conclusions reported in reviews were evaluated against a broad range of therapeutic touch (TT) research studies, including many not cited in reviews. How accurately reviewers represented the research studies was evaluated by comparing reviewers' conclusions with those of the researchers. Findings were organized into principles to guide evidence-based reviews. FINDINGS: Literature reviews about therapeutic touch often cited only research with favorable findings. When citing studies with contradictory findings, only the favorable findings were usually mentioned. In many reviews, research cited as indicating the efficacy of therapeutic touch indicated it was ineffective. Every review examined had at least one significant mistake concerning how research studies were represented. CONCLUSIONS: Accurate presentation of original research results is needed to make evidence-based decisions and to ensure that limited healthcare resources are used effectively and safely. Evidence-based principles should be followed in reviewing therapies and practices, including alternative therapies.

Evidence-Based Medicine↗
PubMed1988

Therapeutic substitution in the health maintenance organization outpatient environment.

Health maintenance organizations (HMO) are growing in number as a cost-effective way of providing health care. In some, stringent formulary management policies including programs authorizing therapeutic substitution are practiced. Under this concept a drug that has been previously determined to be therapeutically equivalent to a second drug, even though it is not chemically equivalent to the prescribed drug, is automatically dispensed without contacting the prescriber. This study was undertaken to learn the extent and conditions under which therapeutic substitution is being practiced in the HMO setting. A survey was sent to all HMO in the U.S. inquiring into the operation of the pharmacy services. Specific focus was on the operation of the formulary and the policies and procedures being followed. The main goal was to learn how many programs authorize therapeutic substitution, what drugs are allowed, and what procedures are followed once the substitution is made. Of the 481 surveys sent out, 192 (40 percent) usable responses were received. Results indicate that 30.5 percent of HMO pharmacy plans allow therapeutic substitution. These programs were most likely to be of the staff-model or the group-model and least likely to be of the independent practice association type. HMO with an inhouse pharmacy more frequently had policies allowing therapeutic substitution than those using outside pharmacy services.

Data Collection↗
PubMed1989

Clinical differences among nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs: implications for therapeutic substitution in ambulatory patients.

The practice of therapeutic substitution, i.e., replacing one drug with another chemically different drug from the same therapeutic class, represents an important therapeutic modification with potential clinical significance far beyond that of generic substitution. Adverse consequences following therapeutic substitution of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAID) is of special concern because of substantial differences among these agents in pharmacokinetic, pharmacological, and clinical properties. Therapeutic substitution of NSAID for ambulatory patients may result in compromised clinical outcome because (1) patient response is unpredictable and selection of the optimal agent must be tailored for each patient; (2) substantial differences exist in adverse reaction profiles; (3) drug interaction studies are lacking; and (4) selection of an agent must be individualized to ensure compliance with the dosing regimen. Cost savings achieved through therapeutic substitution of NSAID may be lost by additional overall treatment costs due to adverse reactions or suboptimal therapy. The occurrence of adverse or suboptimal effects in ambulatory patients is more likely if NSAID are substituted without full knowledge of the patient's medical history and clinical status. Communication between the pharmacy and prescribing physician regarding a patient's specific needs is essential for rational substitution among NSAID.

Ambulatory Care↗
PubMed2006

[Pharmacy and therapeutics committees in Brazil: lagging behind international standards].

The inadequate use of drugs leads to lack of therapeutic efficacy, adverse reactions, side effects, preventable drug interactions, increased bacterial resistance to antibiotics, and wasted resources. Changing this scenario is one of the most complex challenges facing health systems today. One approach used to rationalize the use of drugs lies in the creation of pharmacy and therapeutics committees, whose main role is to guide and assist health institutions at all levels in selecting drugs and monitoring their use, training professionals to use drugs rationally, and collecting systematized information to guide new strategies and actions. Brazil, unlike other parts of the world, does not make it compulsory to have pharmacy and therapeutics committees. Although committees for monitoring hospital infections are compulsory in that country, their action is restricted to hospitals and is not as broad as that proposed for pharmacy and therapeutics committees. Data from 2003 shows that among 250 public and private hospitals in Brazil, only 29 had pharmacy and therapeutics committees. It is essential that the need to make these committees compulsory at all levels of the Brazilian health system be discussed, and that the national Ministry of Health and other related agencies create the conditions necessary for the establishment of pharmacy and therapeutics committees, in accordance with other health policies currently in place.

Brazil↗
PubMed2026

Beyond antibiotics: artificial intelligence-enabled anti-infective ecosystems for next-generation precision therapeutics against antimicrobial resistance.

The rapid global expansion of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) threatens to undermine decades of progress in infectious disease management and highlights the limitations of conventional antibiotic-centered therapeutic strategies. Although emerging technologies-including antimicrobial peptides, bacteriophage therapy, CRISPR-based antimicrobials, microbiome therapeutics, anti-virulence approaches, nanotechnology-enabled drug delivery, and artificial intelligence (AI)-have individually demonstrated considerable promise, they are predominantly being developed as independent interventions rather than as coordinated components of an integrated therapeutic strategy. This Perspective proposes the Intelligent Anti-Infective Ecosystem (IAIE) as a conceptual systems-level framework that computationally integrates multimodal diagnostics, pathogen genomics, microbiome profiling, AI-assisted decision support, programmable precision therapeutics, ecological monitoring, and longitudinal clinical feedback within a continuously learning dynamically optimized workflow. Unlike existing paradigms that primarily optimize individual technologies or therapeutic decisions, IAIE emphasizes closed-loop coordination among complementary antimicrobial approaches to support precision-guided infection management while preserving microbiome integrity and mitigating resistance selection pressure. We further outline the core components, operational principles, translational challenges, and technology readiness of the major therapeutic platforms that could contribute to such an ecosystem, while distinguishing clinically established interventions from emerging experimental strategies. Importantly, IAIE should be interpreted as a prospective conceptual architecture rather than an existing clinical platform. Its proposed clinical value remains to be established through sequential computational, preclinical, and prospective clinical investigations using standardized microbiological, ecological, and patient-centered outcome measures. By framing antimicrobial innovation within an responsive systems perspective, IAIE provides a roadmap for future multidisciplinary research aimed at integrating artificial intelligence and systems microbiology to enable sustainable management of antimicrobial resistance.

Humans↗
PubMed1988

Third-party reimbursement of therapeutic recreation services within a national sample of United States hospitals.

The purpose of this study was to determine the status of third-party reimbursement for therapeutic recreation services within three types of hospital classifications: Government, nonfederal (GNF); non-government, not-for-profit (NFP); and investor-owned (IO). A sample of 580 hospitals was drawn by the American Hospital Association through a randomly selected, proportionate sample from the universe of 5,799 GNF, NFP, and IO hospitals. Three hundred-twenty hospitals (55.2 percent) returned usable instruments. Based upon the analysis of 33 therapeutic recreation services approved for third-party reimbursement, it was found that: Significantly more therapeutic recreation directors who gave financing a higher priority tended to direct programs whose services were approved for third-party reimbursement; significantly more therapeutic recreation services were successful in their efforts to obtain third-party reimbursement even though they were denied approval in their initial efforts and approaches to obtain third-party reimbursement; and significantly more IO hospitals with therapeutic recreation services were approved for third-party reimbursement than either GNF or NFP therapeutic recreation services.

Evaluation Studies as Topic↗
PubMed1999

[Place and mode of teaching therapeutics in the curriculum of medical education].

The current medical school curriculum in France includes a comprehensive examination on therapeutic management which medical students must pass before admission into residency. The proposed reform in the medical school curriculum considerably modifies the training program. The main objective is for students to acquire the minimal degree of responsibility necessary from the very beginning of residency, particularly in terms of therapeutic decision making. A survey currently being analyzed was conductec by the national association for training in therapeutics (APNET) and the national association of French medical students (ANEMF). It showed that at the end of pre-residence training, student demand for practical training in therapeutics and decision making is very strong. This round table revealed a consensus concerning the proposed reform. Faculty members, medical school deans, and students agree on the need for an improvement in training in therapeutics. The following points were discussed: what is the objective of training in therapeutics? When should it be taught? When should training be validated? And by whom?

Curriculum↗
PubMed1990

Procedural compliance and clinical outcome associated with therapeutic interchange of extended-spectrum penicillins.

The degree of procedural compliance and the clinical outcome associated with a therapeutic interchange of extended-spectrum penicillins were assessed. Pharmacists conducted a concurrent chart review on all patients receiving mezlocillin as a therapeutic alternative for piperacillin or ticarcillin over a five-month period. The pharmacists assessed whether (1) the pharmacy appropriately dispensed mezlocillin when orders were written for piperacillin or ticarcillin, (2) physicians and nurses were properly notified of the therapeutic interchange, and (3) the bacterial isolates were susceptible to mezlocillin. Pharmacists and physicians evaluated clinical outcomes of all patients receiving mezlocillin through a retrospective chart review and classified the responses as "success," "failure," or "indeterminate." Fifty-one orders for piperacillin were written during the study period, and mezlocillin was selected as a therapeutic alternative in all cases. No orders for ticarcillin were written. Proper notification was made to nurses and physicians in 98% and 65% of cases, respectively. No mezlocillin-resistant gram-negative bacteria were found. Eighty-three courses of therapy were reviewed for clinical outcome; 68 were classified as successes, 0 were failures, and 15 were indeterminate. The cost savings after nine months of therapeutic interchange of mezlocillin for piperacillin was $6600. This study indicates that the pharmacy made a proper therapeutic interchange of mezlocillin for piperacillin and followed the correct procedure for notification of the nursing staff. However, more effort is needed to ensure communication with the prescribing physicians.

Bacteria↗
PubMed1977

An implementation of therapeutic community in a private mental health center.

The concepts of milieu therapy have, in the past 20 years, been widely applied to various facilities for treatment of people with emotional and mental illness. One type of milieu therapy, the Therapeutic Community, has gained increasing acceptance, as a means of implementing milieu therapy. This paper describes the application of therapeutic community concepts to the in-hospital population of a private, open-staffed, open-door psychiatric facility, and some of the effects that this has had on both the staff, and the patient population. Since the development of the therapeutic community concept almost 25 years ago, programs have been developed in various centers which implement the concepts of social psychiatry in different ways. This paper describes the development of a particular therapeutic community on the in-patient adult and adolescent psychiatric services of a private psychiatric hospital. Parkwood was developed as a small (40 bed) psychiatric hospital in Atlanta, Georgia in 1966 by a group of physicians wanting to implement the ideas of milieu therapy in an area where no such program was available. In its initial stages, the hospital -- of attractive, middle-class decor -- was built in a wooded setting on the edge of a large metropolis. It was open-staffed, with psychiatrists having an eclectic, though psychoanalytically based, orientation toward treatment. The concepts of milieu therapy were interpreted to mean the following: a warm, pleasant atmosphere, in pleasant surroundings, conducive to the usual brief psychotherapy, chemotherapy, or somatic therapy, which had previously been used in non-milieu psychiatric hospitals. The total hospital patient population was divided in half and met in group sessions with a psychiatrist once each week. The Medical Director, a psychiatrist, had weekly staff meetings, in which he discussed various administrative problems. In 1969, a Medical Director with a therapeutic community orientation was employed. Over a five-year period, the total complexion of the hospital changed to its present state, an open-staffed, open door, comprehensive, community mental health center financed on a private basis. The facility now provides out-patient, partial or total hospitalization, emergency services, and community education for children, adolescents, adults and alcohol addicted patients. This paper deals with the therapeutic community on the adult and adolescent units.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

The therapeutic use of albumin.

In this review, we condense and summarize the results of studies on the therapeutic use of human albumin to promote the more efficient use of this costly resource. Reports of major controlled and uncontrolled therapeutic trials, reviews, and summary articles published in English between 1972 and 1991 were identified through library and MEDLINE searches. Case series, prospective studies, and blinded therapeutic trials were identified from the bibliographies of these sources. All sources were critically evaluated for information about the comparative physiologic results and patient outcomes of the therapeutic use of albumin solutions, crystalloid solutions, and volume expanders other than albumin. The therapeutic use of albumin is of marginal benefit for many conditions for which it has been administered, apparently because of the body's capacity to quickly compensate for rapid colloid osmotic shifts. Human studies show little or no demonstrable value for albumin when it is administered for nutritional supplementation, wound healing, perioperative fluid replacement, treatment of early thermal injury, or therapy during extensive retroperitoneal surgery (including aortic aneurysm resection). Therapeutic albumin has well-defined value in several special circumstances: large-volume paracentesis in cirrhotic patients, acute nephrotic syndromes with diuretic resistance, organ transplantation, and plasmapheresis. Additional studies are needed to compare the efficacy of albumin with other volume expanders. For most purposes, balanced crystalloid solutions are satisfactory substitutes for colloid volume expanders and can be obtained at a fraction of the cost of colloid volume expanders.

Albumins↗
PubMed2001

Use of a fixed activated partial thromboplastin time ratio to establish a therapeutic range for unfractionated heparin.

BACKGROUND: The commonly recommended therapeutic range for patients receiving unfractionated heparin of 1.5 to 2.5 times the control activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) is not universally applicable. It has been suggested that the therapeutic range for each aPTT reagent should be based on plasma heparin levels. We sought to identify an aPTT ratio that corresponds to therapeutic anti--factor Xa heparin levels for combinations of several reagents and coagulometers that are commonly used. METHODS: Citrated plasma was collected from 126 unselected patients receiving unfractionated heparin. Four automated coagulometers and 6 commercial aPTT reagents were used to measure the aPTT. Plasma anti--factor Xa levels were measured by means of a commercially available assay. The relationship between the aPTT results and anti-factor Xa heparin levels for each reagent-coagulometer combination was determined by linear regression analysis, and the aPTT results corresponding to therapeutic anti--factor Xa heparin levels were calculated. RESULTS: For all reagent-coagulometer combinations studied, an aPTT ratio of 1.5 resulted in anti--factor Xa heparin levels considerably below the lower limit of the therapeutic range. When the aPTT was performed on any of the coagulometers assessed with the use of Actin (Dade Diagnostics, Aguada, Puerto Rico) and IL Test (Instrumentation Laboratories, Fisher Scientific, Unionville, Ontario) reagents, aPTT ratios necessary to achieve therapeutic anti--factor Xa heparin levels approximated 2.0 to 3.5. CONCLUSION: For laboratories that cannot perform heparin levels, the use of less responsive reagents and any of the coagulometers studied, along with target aPTT ratio between 2.0 and 3.5, appears to be a reasonable alternative.

Antithrombin III↗
PubMed1993

Therapeutic angiogenesis.

We have proposed the term "therapeutic angiogenesis" to describe the induction or stimulation of neovascularization for the treatment or prevention of pathological clinical situations characterized by local hypovascularity. Evidence also shows that "clinically normal" healing and tissue regeneration can be improved or accelerated by therapeutic angiogenesis. Traditionally, therapeutic angiogenesis has been achieved by surgical methods, ie, the transposition of autologous tissues with uncompromised vasculature and high angiogenic potential such as omentum majus flaps and muscle flaps. Recent advances in the understanding of the biological process of neovascularization as well as the discovery and cloning of angiogenic cytokines may add a new clinical tool: therapeutic angiogenesis by pharmaceutical methods. Based on the results of animal studies and preliminary clinical trials, this review is aimed to give a state-of-the-art compilation of (1) those angiogenesis factors that appear promising in clinical application for therapeutic angiogenesis and (2) the surgical indication fields with near-term potential for therapeutic angiogenesis by use of angiogenic cytokines.

Angiogenesis Inducing Agents↗
PubMed2000

Therapeutic jurisprudence in the courts.

Therapeutic jurisprudence is an emerging field of law and social science inquiry that explores the role of the law in fostering therapeutic or antitherapeutic outcomes. This article considers the relationship between therapeutic jurisprudence and court performance goals, examines applications of therapeutic jurisprudence in court settings, discusses the steps involved in incorporating therapeutic jurisprudence principles into the work of courts, outlines the pros and cons associated with practicing therapeutic jurisprudence primarily in specialized courts, and offers suggestions for fostering continued experimentation by courts.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy↗
PubMed2005

Determination of therapeutic threshold in sacral nerve modulation for faecal incontinence.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to determine the therapeutic stimulation threshold in patients with successful sacral nerve modulation for faecal incontinence. METHODS: Patients who had undergone successful permanent sacral nerve modulator implantation and had been followed up for a minimum of 3 months were included. The sensitivity threshold and motor threshold were determined and correlated with therapeutic response. Patients went home with the stimulator set at 0.6 V below the sensitivity threshold. Each week the voltage was increased by 0.2 V until the sensitivity threshold was reached. The effects on anorectal physiology and continence were recorded. RESULTS: Eight patients (seven women) with a median age of 58.5 years were included. The median follow-up was 6.3 months. The median sensibility threshold volume of rectal sensation was 50 ml, the median urge threshold volume was 140 ml and the median maximum tolerated rectal volume 240 ml. The median number of incontinence episodes and days per week affected by incontinence decreased from 5.0 and 3.8 before operation to 0.7 and 0.7 respectively after follow-up for 3 months. At anorectal manometry the median resting and stimulation anal canal pressures were 57 and 85 mmHg respectively, and remained constant over time. The therapeutic response threshold was significantly lower than the sensitivity threshold (median 1.6 versus 1.7 V; P = 0.042). The median motor threshold was 2.1 V, significantly higher than the sensitivity threshold (P = 0.009). The stimulation threshold for suboptimal therapeutic response was 1.4 V. In five of the eight patients the therapeutic response threshold was the same as the sensitivity threshold. CONCLUSION: Sacral nerve modulation can produce a therapeutic effect below the sensitivity threshold. A lower stimulation voltage increases the lifespan of the pulse generator.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Managing the risks of therapeutic products: proceedings of a workshop.

Traditional tools available to the Food and Drug Administration for managing known risks of therapeutic products (drugs, devices and biological products) have limited effectiveness. This report presents the recommendations of a multidisciplinary workshop focused on managing these risks. This is the last in a series of five workshops coordinated by the Centers for Education and Research on Therapeutics (CERTs) on assessing, communicating and managing the risks and benefits of therapeutic products. Workshop participants included experts from government, academia, industry and healthcare organizations, including consumers. Using a modified nominal group process, participants developed a consensus on principles that should govern future risk management (RM) programs, specifically: in order to protect the public health, risk management programs (RMPs) should be evidence-based, science-driven and patient-focused. A plan to manage the risks of each new therapeutic product should be developed prior to its approval. Evaluation of both the processes and outcomes of RM is essential; these evaluations should be in the public domain. Participants also identified and prioritized research and policy gaps related to RM. Recommended research areas included determining the effectiveness of each element of RMPs, finding the best ways to inform healthcare consumers and determining the best way to present risk information in drug labeling. Policy questions included defining the criteria for requiring a RMP, determining the effect of privacy legislation on RMPs and determining how the continuum of risk across therapeutic products should be classified. As this workshop demonstrated, it is possible to develop a prioritized research and policy agenda to meet the needs of all constituencies. Collaboration across diverse government, academic, industry and constituency-based organizations can lead to solutions for the perplexing problems involved in balancing the risks and benefits of therapeutic products. Patients deserve no less as we strive to protect their safety.

Consensus Statements as Topic↗
PubMed1996

Peri-operative prophylaxis with phenytoin: dosage and therapeutic plasma levels.

Early postoperative epilepsy is a frequent complication of supratentorial intracranial surgery. The lack of consensus on prophylaxis of early postoperative seizures with phenytoin (PHT) may be due to the different dosages used in several studies, owing to inadequate therapeutic plasma level. The aim of this study was to evaluate which dosage of PHT can maintain the therapeutic range in the early postoperative period. Twenty patients operated on for supratentorial neoplasms were randomly allocated to receive, during the last hour of the surgical procedure, loading doses of either 10 mg/kg (group A, n = 10) or 15 mg/kg (group B, n = 10) of PHT. PHT infusion rate never exceeded 30 mg/min. Six hours after the loading dose, PHT maintenance treatment (250 mg, i.v., every 8 hours) was started in all patients. PHT plasma levels were evaluated from the end of the intra-operative loading infusion up to 24 h. During the first six hours after the loading dose, phenytoin plasma levels fell below the therapeutic range (10-20 mg/l) in 7 out of the 10 patients receiving 10 mg/kg, while in the patients treated with 15 mg/kg, PHT plasma levels were always in the therapeutic range (P < or = 0.0001). PHT maintenance dose was sufficient to keep plasma levels within the therapeutic range in 8 patients in group A, and in all the patients in group B. It is concluded that a loading dose of 15 mg/kg, followed by postoperative treatment, is necessary to guarantee therapeutic plasma levels of phenytoin in the immediate postoperative period, when seizure risk is very high.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Tumor-specific granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor and interferon gamma secretion is associated with in vivo therapeutic efficacy of activated tumor-draining lymph node cells.

In this study, cytokine release by tumor-draining lymph node cells sensitized in vitro (IVS-TDLN) was examined and correlated with therapeutic efficacy in adoptive immunotherapy. Mice bearing immunologically distinct MCA 207 and MCA 205 sarcoma tumors were utilized in criss-cross experiments. IVS-TDLN obtained from mice bearing 10-day subcutaneous (s.c.) tumors mediated immunologically specific regression of established 3-day pulmonary metastases, but demonstrated non-specific cytolytic reactivity against both tumors in a 4-h 51Cr-release assay. By contrast, these IVS-TDLN cells were found specifically to secrete granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and interferon gamma (IFN gamma) when restimulated in vitro with irradiated tumor cells. To determine the predictive value of tumor-specific cytokine release with in vivo therapeutic efficacy, a kinetic analysis of antitumor activities of TDLN obtained from animals bearing MCA 207 tumors for increasing lengths of time was performed. IVS-TDLN cells from mice bearing day-7, -10 and -14 s.c. tumors manifested tumor-specific release of GM-CSF and IFN gamma, and mediated significant antitumor reactivity in vivo. In contrast IVS-LN cells from day-0 and day-21 tumor-bearing animals did not release significant amounts of GM-CSF and IFN gamma, and were not therapeutically efficacious in vivo. Day-4 IVS-TDLN released high levels of GM-CSF and IFN gamma non-specifically, and were not therapeutic in adoptive immunotherapy at doses effective for day-7 and day-14 IVS-TDLN cells. In other experiments, IVS cells generated from different lymph node groups in animals bearing 10-day established s.c. tumors were examined and found to have unique profiles of cytokine release. In these studies, the ability of IVS cells to release specifically both cytokines as opposed to one was associated with greater therapeutic efficacy on a per cell basis. Our findings suggest that the tumor-specific releases of GM-CSF and IFN gamma are useful parameters to assess the in vivo therapeutic efficacy of immune lymphocytes.

Animals↗