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PubMed1975

The influence of smallpox revaccination upon the foetus.

Serological, virological, anatomo- and histopathological investigations were performed in pregnant women subjected to smallpox revaccination. Serological findings were normal; no vaccinia virus was isolated from 210 placentae collected upon therapeutical abortion. Anatomopathological investigation of 15 placentae showed various lesions, while the embryo were free from any histopathological changes. The data prove that smallpox immunization does not affect the embryo directly, but only through the placenta.

Adult↗
PubMed1976

[Smallpox vaccination in a country district (author's transl].

This survey deals with the matter of smallpox vaccination (serum, complications, age, degree of immunity, compulsory vaccination) also with the percentage of first vaccinations, booster vaccinations of children with birth years from 1962 to 1974, as well as the vaccination coverage of 2000 adults within a district. The survey showed a high degree of first vaccination coverage and a satisfactory percentage of booster vaccinations. Of the 2000 adults interviewed 19% had never been vaccinated, 54% ten or more years ago, 17% between the last 3 to 10 years, and only 10% had been vaccinated within the past three years. As a minimum safety measure it is requested that persons who could be exposed to smallpox (public servants, medical officers, flight personnel) be satisfactorily immunized against the disease.

Austria↗
PubMed2003

Smallpox, big worries. Preparing medical-response teams is easier said than done, according to healthcare providers across the nation.

Preparations for healthcare workers to respond to a smallpox attack pose an array of daunting challenges, both financial and logistical, that must be addressed in a few weeks. By the end of the month, a massive corps of doctors, nurses and other healthcare workers will voluntarily receive the smallpox vaccine as part of the first phase of a national strategy announced last month by President Bush.

American Hospital Association↗
PubMed2002

Smallpox vaccine revisited.

Smallpox is a serious contagious disease which is back in the public eye. Yet, most health care providers are unprepared for its return. Nurses will be key health care professionals in a smallpox outbreak or vaccination program.

Communicable Disease Control↗
PubMed1955

The use of smallpox vaccine.

The author first discusses the developments made in the last thirty years in methods of destroying contaminating micro-organisms and of reducing the amount of extraneous tissue debris, in cultivating virus in the embryonated egg and in tissue culture, in producing stable dried vaccine, and in methods of titrating the potency of vaccine. As to the strain of virus to be used in vaccines, he does not consider it necessary to use strains which have periodically been passed through the human subject.He then discusses a trial of the stability of dried smallpox vaccine which is being conducted by the World Health Organization and the characteristics of a dried vaccine developed at the Lister Institute of Preventine Medicine. Encouraging results have also been achieved there in the production and use of virus inactivated by ultraviolet irradiation, in order to decrease the risk of complications consequent upon the use of living virus vaccine.Consideration of the duration of immunity and the protection afforded after contact with smallpox leads to the conclusion that complete protection may be expected in most cases if vaccination is carried out within 24 hours of exposure, but that if vaccination is delayed more than three days it will have little influence on the infection.

Humans↗
PubMed1961

Studies of smallpox antibody levels of sera from samples of the vaccinated adult population of Madras.

In view of the endemicity of smallpox in Madras and the poor take rate on revaccination with the lymph in current use, it was felt that the immunity of the general adult population might be relatively low. In an attempt to obtain some measure of this, sera were obtained from over 300 adults in Madras for the estimation of serum antibody. The results of neutralization tests against variola virus made on these sera showed that about 10% of those who had good scars from infant vaccination showed little or no antibody. A comparison of the antibody titres of adult sera showing good antibody levels when used undiluted was made with that of sera from smallpox convalescents. The antibody level in the latter sera was 20-100 times that of the sera of adult persons who showed good vaccination scars.

Adult↗
PubMed1963

THE INTERNATIONAL REFERENCE PREPARATION OF SMALLPOX VACCINE. AN INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATIVE ASSAY.

A purified, concentrated sheep vaccine, prepared from a vaccinia strain in use in the United Kingdom for more than 60 years, has been established as the International Reference Preparation of Smallpox Vaccine, intended to permit comparative assay with national reference vaccines.Before its establishment as the International Reference Preparation, the proposed international reference vaccine was tested in seven laboratories in as many countries together with four other distributed vaccines and one local vaccine in each country. All laboratories used the scarification test on rabbits; four used the pock count method; the intracutaneous test in rabbits, the plaque count in tissue culture and the LD(50) test in eggs, cultures and newborn mice were used by one to three of the participants.The proposed international reference preparation met all the requirements laid down by the WHO Study Group on Requirements for Smallpox Vaccine in six laboratories when the scarification test was used and in all laboratories when the pock count test was used.

Animals↗
PubMed1963

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CLINICAL REACTION OBSERVED AFTER APPLICATION OF SEVERAL SMALLPOX VACCINES IN PRIMARY VACCINATION OF YOUNG ADULTS.

Four smallpox vaccines from different production laboratories were compared in primary vaccination of young adults. Morbidity rate, high fever rate and prolonged fever rate, as defined in this report, were used as gauges for pathogenic potency. Special batches were prepared, in addition, from two of these vaccines after three passages on calf skin. Two vaccines, prepared from the Elstree strain-a sheep lymph and its third calf-passage-were found to be of low pathogenicity. Two calf lymphs, prepared from the Copenhagen strain and the Bern strain respectively, caused clearly higher rates of illness and of height and duration of fever. Two calf lymphs from the Ecuador strain took up an intermediate position.Vaccine potency, as assessed on the chorio-allantoic membrane of developing chick embryos, seems to be of no significance for the course of vaccinia disease caused by two pustules. Besides the pathogenicity of the vaccinia strain, ill-defined extraneous factors might be of importance for the degree of illness observed after primary smallpox vaccination.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Bioterrorism preparedness--Part II. Smallpox vaccination in a hospital setting.

The threat of using smallpox as an agent for bioterrorism resulted in a directive for the creation of smallpox response teams. In Connecticut, The Commissioner of the Department of Public Health convened public health and hospital leadership to plan for the vaccination of these teams. The purpose of this paper is to provide a description of the vaccination program at Hartford Hospital, a Center of Excellence for Bioterrorism Preparedness, and to report the results of a survey of the vaccinees regarding the vaccination experience. Ninety persons were vaccinated. Six individuals experienced low-grade fever and 10 had axillary node swelling. One individual experienced significant fatigue. A total of six persons lost time from work. Four lost one day and two persons lost between four to five days of work. There was no autoinoculation, transfer inoculation, vaccinia or any other significant complication. Survey results indicate that most vaccinees felt positive about the experience.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗
PubMed2003

Smallpox and bioterrorism.

Smallpox was declared to be eradicated on 8 May 1980, during the Thirty-third World Health Assembly. However, concerns about the possible use of the virus as a weapon of bioterrorism have increased in recent years. Governments have responded by initiating selective vaccination programmes and other public health measures. This review uses historical data from 20th century outbreaks to assess the risks to current populations (which have declining immunity) from a deliberate release of virus. The data presented supports the conclusion of a previous reviewer (Mack) that "smallpox cannot be said to live up to its reputation. Far from being a quick-footed menace, it has appeared as a plodding nuisance with more bark than bite." Its R value (the average number of secondary cases infected by a primary case) is lower than that for measles, human parvovirus, chickenpox, mumps, rubella, and poliomyelitis; only the value for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is lower. Like SARS, close person-to-person contact is required for effective spread of the disease, and exposure to the virus in hospitals has played an important role in transmission for both viruses. In the present paper the dangers of mass vaccination are emphasized, along with the importance of case isolation, contact tracing, and quarantine of close contacts for outbreak control. The need for rapid diagnosis and the continued importance of maintaining a network of electron microscopes for this purpose are also highlighted.

Biological Warfare↗
PubMed2003

[The beginnings of the smallpox vaccine in São Paulo: a little known story].

This discussion of smallpox prevention practices in the state of São Paulo focuses primarily on the Instituto Vacinogênico, created in 1892 as part of a sanitation reform that modernized public health in São Paulo state. Established and headed until 1913 by the renowned São Paulo surgeon Arnaldo Vieira de Carvalho, the institute was responsible for statewide distribution of the smallpox vaccine derived from animals. It operated on its own until 1918, when it was made part of the Instituto Bacteriológico.

Academies and Institutes↗
PubMed2005

[Smallpox preparedness in Denmark].

Although the likelihood of a deliberate release is considered to be minor, smallpox virus poses a worldwide terrorism security risk because it (1) can easily be disseminated and transmitted from person to person; (2) results in high mortality rates and has the potential to create a major public health impact; (3) might cause public panic and social disruption; and (4) requires special action for public health preparedness. Consequently, Statens Serum Institute and the National Board of Health have developed a Danish smallpox preparedness plan. This article discusses critical aspects of the plan, including risk analysis and a multi-tiered action plan, vaccination, analysis of clinical specimens, the establishment of active surveillance teams and generic contingency elements.

Bioterrorism↗
PubMed1976

Oral immunization against smallpox.

Attenuated vaccinia strain penetrates the mucous membranes of the oral and pharyngeal cavity; local lesions are not produced, even if high doses of attenuated virus are applied. Attenuated vaccinia virus thus offers the possibility of oral and nasal immunization against smallpox in man. Several groups of monkeys were immunized by the oral and nasal route. The subsequent challenge with virulent smallpox virus resulted in strongly mitigated clinical symptoms as compared to non-immunized controls. In the human, oral immunization with live attenuated virus was affected by the administration of virus-containing tablets. The procedures caused no untoward effect in primary vaccinees. Subsequent skin testing and conventional cutaneous vaccination resulted in accelerated takes, demonstrating successful oral pre-immunization.

Administration, Intranasal↗
PubMed1978

[Results of the research on the preparation and testing of live oral smallpox vaccine in tablet form].

The authors sum up the results of decade of investigations on the elaboration and trial of live oral smallpox vaccine in tablet form. A conclusion was made that due to mild reactogenic properties, satisfactory immunogenicity and weak allergy producing properties, the mentioned preparation, along with a possibility of express and mass use, can posses future prospects under conditions of final smallpox eradication.

Anaphylaxis↗
PubMed1979

[Worldwide eradication of smallpox or from Sarah Nelmes to Ali Maow Maalin].

It cannot be disputed that the WHO plan for the eradication of smallpox has had considerable success. There is no endemic smallpox any longer in the world. Nevertheless caution is advised and continued supervision must not be neglected. There are still countries where supervision is not satisfactory, there is uncertainty about animal reservoirs and it should be assumed from the beginning that up to the present no epidemic disease could be completely eradicated. For this reason it is inevitable that supplies of vaccine should be available. A vaccine from heat sensitive strains is offered which is obtained from cell cultures.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

[Danger to the human caused by animal poxvirus following discontinuation of mandatory vaccination against smallpox].

The discontinuation of smallpox vaccination will lead to a gradual decrease or disappearance of immunity to poxviruses of the genus Orthopoxvirus. It is discussed whether orthopoxviruses of animals may then constitute a potential danger to man, with respect to their mutagenic and adaptation capabilities as well as their possible genetic interactions. Infection of man with these viruses is generally possible, but at present, not of acute importance. Monkeypox and cowpox viruses, as well as their variants occurring in carnivores and rodents, are of primary interest for individuals who have not been vaccinated against smallpox. Suggestions are put forward on how the human population, as well as domestic and laboratory animals, may be protected against infection with orthopoxviruses originating from animals. In particular, it is recommended that endangered groups of people should receive voluntary vaccination with genetically stable, attenuated vaccinia virus strains.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Principles and lessons from the smallpox eradication programme.

The eradication of smallpox required a unique, fully collaborative international effort on the part of WHO and Member States. In the course of the programme, many lessons were learned in its organization, execution and evaluation which have implications for other international activities. Most important among these was the need to establish measurable objectives and to evaluate progress and performance in terms of these; to establish procedures for quality control both of vaccines and performance; to recruit the best possible personnel and support them; and to assure an on-going programme of problem-oriented research which can facilitate activities and resolve apparently paradoxical observations. The inherent capacities of national health services to execute their smallpox eradication programmes was gratifying. It encouraged the belief that other, more complex health measures could be undertaken. Although this would necessitate that adequate numbers of competent leaders be recruited and given delegated responsibility, such persons were usually found to be available although often inexperienced. WHO's roles in catalysing and orchestrating this great effort were critical. Its potential for promoting other efforts in disease prevention and health promotion was apparent although still only partially realized.

Communicable Disease Control↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[History of smallpox vaccination in Romania and source of the IC strains of vaccinia virus].

Smallpox existed in Romania since the 17th century, when both variolation and vaccinia were used for preventing the disease. Jenner's vaccination was performed in 1801 in Cluj and Tirgu Mures and extended to the entire country during the following 31 years. The vaccinia virus strain used for preparing the smallpox vaccine was received in 1893 from the Vaccine Institute of Berlin by Prof. Riegler of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bucharest. In 1949, it was taken over by the Cantacuzino Institute and has been carried through at most 27 passages in buffalo calves ; it is now designated as strain ICn+m27.

History, 18th Century↗