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PubMed2002

Characterization of neutralization specificities of outer capsid spike protein VP4 of selected murine, lapine, and human rotavirus strains.

Neutralization specificities of outer capsid spike protein VP4 of murine rotavirus strains EW (P?[16],G3) and EHP (P?[20],G3) and lapine rotavirus strains Ala (P?[14],G3), C11 (P?[14],G3), and R2 (P?[14],G3) as well as human rotavirus strains PA169 (P?[14],G6) and HAL1166 (P?[14],G8) were determined by two-way cross-neutralization. This was done by generating and characterizing (i) three murine x human, three lapine x human, and two human x human single gene substitution reassortant rotaviruses, each of which bore identical human rotavirus DS-1 strain VP7 (G2), and (ii) guinea pig hyperimmune antiserum raised against each reassortant. Reference rotavirus strains employed in the study represented 10 established VP4 (P) serotypes, including 1A[8], 1B[4], 2A[6], 3[9], 4[10], 5A[2], 5B[2], 5B[3], 6[1], 7[5], 8[11], 9[7], and 10[16] as well as a P serotype unknown P[18]. Murine rotavirus strains EW and EB were demonstrated to share the same P serotype (P10[16]) distinct from (i) 9 established P serotypes, (ii) lapine and human rotavirus strains bearing the P[14] genotype, and (iii) an equine rotavirus strain bearing the P[18] genotype. Both lapine (Ala, C11, and R2) and human (PA169 and HAL1166) rotaviruses were shown to belong to the same VP4 serotype, which represented a distinct new P serotype (P11[14]). P serotype 13[20] was assigned to murine rotavirus EHP strain VP4, which was shown to be distinct from all the P serotypes/genotypes examined in the present study.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Natural killer cell activity of chicken intraepithelial leukocytes against rotavirus-infected target cells.

Intraepithelial leukocytes (IEL) and splenocytes collected from uninfected and rotavirus-infected chickens were evaluated for cytotoxic activity against a natural killer (NK) cell-susceptible lymphoblastoid cell line (LSCC-RP9) and against rotavirus-infected chick kidney cells in 4-h chromium-release assays. Both splenocytes and IELs from uninfected and rotavirus-infected chickens were cytotoxic for LSCC-RP9, and the levels of this NK cell activity were not altered by infection of the host with rotavirus. IELs but not splenocytes from uninfected and rotavirus-infected chickens were cytotoxic for rotavirus-infected but not for uninfected chick kidney cell targets. Because this cytotoxic activity was not induced nor altered by rotavirus infection of the host, and was not major histocompatibility complex-restricted, it was considered to be due to NK cell activity. The cytotoxicity of IELs against rotavirus-infected target cells was dose-dependent; however, there was some suppression of cytotoxic activity at high effector to target cell ratios. There were no differences in the cytotoxic activities of IELs collected from the duodenum versus the jejunum. The in vitro cytotoxic activity of IELs against rotavirus-infected target cells suggested that NK cell activity may be an important immune response to rotavirus infections in vivo. The absence of cytotoxic activity by splenocytes against rotavirus-infected target cells indicated that there may be different subpopulations of NK cells in the spleen and intestinal epithelium of chickens.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Rotavirus infections and development of diabetes-associated autoantibodies during the first 2 years of life.

Rotavirus, the most common cause of childhood gastroenteritis, has been implicated as one of the viral triggers of diabetes-associated autoimmunity. To study the possible association between rotavirus infections and the development of diabetes-associated autoantibodies, we measured the prevalence of rotavirus antibodies in serum samples collected at 3-6-month intervals up to the age of 2 years from 177 children selected from consecutive newborns because they carried HLA-DQB1 alleles associated with increased risk for type 1 diabetes. Twenty-nine of the children developed at least two of four diabetes-associated autoantibodies (ICA, IAA, GADA or IA-2A) during the first 2 years of life (the cases), whereas 148 children remained autoantibody-negative matched with the cases for date of birth, gender, living region and HLA-DQB1 alleles. The temporal association between the development of the first-appearing diabetes-associated autoantibody and rotavirus infections was studied by analysing whether the cases had a diagnostic increase in rotavirus antibody titre more often during the 6-month period that preceded seroconversion to autoantibody positivity than the controls. By the age of 12 months one of the 13 case children (7%), who had a serum sample drawn at that age and who had developed at least one type of diabetes-associated autoantibodies, had experienced a rotavirus infection, while 12 of the 61 (20%) autoantibody-negative control children had had a rotavirus infection. By 18 months, four of the 22 autoantibody-positive cases (18%) and 18 of the 89 controls (20%) had rotavirus antibodies, and by the age of 24 months the respective numbers were five of the 27 cases (19%) and 32 of the 113 (28%) controls. A rotavirus infection occurred during the 6 months preceding the sample which was positive for an autoantibody in four of the 25 periods (16%) for which both necessary samples were available, while the controls had a rotavirus infection during 55 of the 370-such periods (15%). Accordingly, our data suggest that rotavirus infections are unlikely triggers of beta-cell autoimmunity in young children with genetic susceptibility to type 1 diabetes.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Overview of rotavirus infections in Korea.

Rotavirus is the most common cause of acute watery diarrhea in young Korean children. Rotavirus vaccine will soon be available, and information is urgently required about the serotype distribution of recent epidemics and clinical characteristics of rotavirus infection in Korean children before the implementation of a vaccination program against rotavirus. We reviewed published studies of the past 20 years, carried out on Korean children with rotavirus gastroenteritis. Rotavirus was estimated to be responsible for 46% of 4668 hospitalized Korean children with acute gastroenteritis. Rotavirus gastroenteritis was most prevalent among children aged 6-24 months, which accounted for 84% of all cases. Asymptomatic rotavirus infection was common. Rotavirus was one of the most commonly identified enteric pathogens in nosocomial diarrhea. Vomiting, respiratory symptoms and fever were prominent symptoms in rotavirus gastroenteritis. Transient elevation of liver enzymes, pulmonic infiltration and rarely afebrile convulsion were also observed. The epidemic peak, which occurred in November of the last 15 years, has been moving toward late winter and early spring in recent years. No apparent cause has been found to explain this alteration of peak seasonality. All serotyping studies in Korea for the past 10 years until 1997 revealed that G1 was most prevalent (45-81%). Interestingly, the predominant G serotype of the recent outbreaks in 1998 and 1999 was not G1 but G4. Approximately 95% of rotavirus isolates in recent outbreaks belonged to serotype G1, 2, 3 or 4.

Child↗
PubMed2000

Epidemiology of rotavirus infection in Thailand.

Rotavirus is a major cause of acute severe diarrhea in children worldwide and an important cause of death among young children in developing countries. Group A rotaviruses are antigenically complex and multiple serotypes infect humans. Reassortant rotavirus vaccines are now available which offer protection against severe illness caused by rotavirus serotypes G1-4. Before vaccines are introduced into target populations, it is necessary to establish the baseline data of the epidemiology of rotavirus infection in those countries. The purpose of the present study is to provide information related to the epidemiology of rotavirus infection in Thailand. All rotavirus studies performed in Thailand were found through Medline and Thai Index Medicus searches. A total of 26 of the most relevant studies published in international and national journals are reviewed. Most studies reported that the prevalence of rotavirus infection in Thailand was 27-34%, although a few studies have reported a prevalence above this range. The peak seasonal distribution of rotavirus infection among children hospitalized with diarrhea in Thailand was seen in the dry cool seasons: October to February. The prevalence of rotavirus infection was most frequently found in children aged 6-11 months up to 2 years. G1 was the most prevalent serotype in Thailand, followed by G2, G4 and G3, respectively. At least three G serotypes, mostly G1, G2 and G4, are seen to coexist in Thailand each epidemic year and in some studies all four G-serotypes were reported in the same epidemics. In a 1996-1997 study, G9 was the third prevailing serotype after G1 and G2, respectively. These results indicate that rotavirus epidemics occur in Thailand every year and children are the most affected population. In Thailand, although G1-G4 have been reported, G1 is the most prevalent serotype in each epidemic and G9 is becoming increasingly common.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1984

Serotypic similarity and diversity of rotaviruses of mammalian and avian origin as studied by plaque-reduction neutralization.

A total of 16 different strains of rotavirus derived from seven mammalian species (four each from human and porcine species, two each from equine and simian species, and one each from canine and bovine species) and two avian species (one each from turkeys and chickens) were examined in plaque-reduction neutralization tests. Seven antigenically distinct serotypes were established on the basis of a greater than or equal to 20-fold difference between titers of homologous and heterologous reciprocal neutralizing antibodies. Serotypes 1 (strain Wa) and 2 (strain DS-1) were recovered only from humans. Serotype 3 included human rotavirus strain WALK 57/14, rhesus monkey rotavirus strain MMU18006 , vervet monkey rotavirus strain SA-11, dog rotavirus strain CU-1, and horse rotavirus strain H-2. The newly established serotype 4 was identified in both humans (strain St. Thomas no. 4) and pigs (strains Gottfried , SB-1A, and SB-2). Porcine (strain OSU ) and equine (strain H-1) rotaviruses made up a possible fifth serotype. Bovine rotavirus (strain NCDV) constituted a sixth serotype, and chicken rotavirus (strain Ch 2), which had a prime-strain relation with turkey rotavirus (strain Ty 1), was designated serotype 7. A surprising observation that emerged from this study was the existence of a rotavirus (porcine strain SB-1A) bridging serotypes 4 and 5.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Burden of rotavirus disease in European Union countries.

Two new rotavirus vaccines are expected to be introduced in the European Union (EU) in coming years. A human rotavirus vaccine has already been licensed in several countries worldwide, and a pentavalent bovine vaccine has been submitted for licensure in the United States and the EU. Few data exist on the burden of rotavirus disease and its associated costs within the EU. To estimate the burden of rotavirus disease in the EU, we adapted a model based on the approach developed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to the European situation and applied it to recent population and mortality data from European countries. Country-specific estimates were added to obtain a global estimate of rotavirus episodes treated at home, clinic visits, hospitalization and death. We estimate that 3.6 million episodes of rotavirus disease occur annually among the 23.6 million children younger than 5 years of age in the EU. Every year, rotavirus accounts for 231 deaths, >87,000 hospitalizations and almost 700,000 outpatient visits. Rotavirus disease constitutes a large public health burden in the EU. Except for deaths, the burden of disease is not dissimilar to that in the developing world. Country-specific studies are required to more accurately understand the burden of disease caused by rotavirus. With the introduction of new rotavirus vaccines in sight, rotavirus gastroenteritis may be regarded as the single most frequent vaccine-preventable disease among children in the EU.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMed1981

Isolation and characterization of feline rotavirus.

Feline rotavirus was detected by electron microscopy in the faecal samples of a cat, and was propagated in an established cell line of foetal rhesus monkey kidney, MA104, cell cultures. Morphologically, feline rotavirus was indistinguishable from known rotaviruses. Complete particles showed a characteristic "spoke-like' arrangement of inner capsomers surrounded by an outer layer. Intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies in different sizes and shapes were produced in infected MA104 cells. Reproducible clear-cut plaques were produced by feline rotavirus in MA104 cells under the overlay of carboxymethylcellulose in the presence of trypsin. Feline rotavirus was distinct from human, canine, bovine, porcine and simian rotaviruses by the plaque reduction neutralization test. Feline rotavirus, like canine and simian rotaviruses, was found to be less dependent upon trypsin than human, bovine, porcine, chicken and turkey rotaviruses. A seroepidemiological survey (September 1979 to August 1980) showed that 20 out of 61 (32.8%) randomly sampled hospitalized cats at the Cornell Veterinary Teaching Hospital in Ithaca, New York had antibody titres against feline rotavirus. Oral inoculation of cats with feline rotavirus did not produce any clinical disease, but most cats did mount an immune response to the virus following inoculation.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Rotaviruses interact with alpha4beta7 and alpha4beta1 integrins by binding the same integrin domains as natural ligands.

Group A rotaviruses are major intestinal pathogens that express potential alpha4beta1 and alpha4beta7 integrin ligand sequences Leu-Asp-Val and Leu-Asp-Ile in their outer capsid protein VP7, and Ile-Asp-Ala in their spike protein VP4. Monkey rotavirus SA11 can use recombinant alpha4beta1 as a cellular receptor. In this study a new potential alpha4beta1, alpha4beta7 and alpha9beta1 integrin ligand sequence, Tyr-Gly-Leu, was identified in VP4. It was shown that several human and monkey rotaviruses bound alpha4beta1 and alpha4beta7, but not alpha9beta1. Binding to alpha4beta1 mediated the infectivity and growth of monkey rotaviruses, and binding to alpha4beta7 mediated their infectivity. A porcine rotavirus interacted with alpha4 integrins at a post-binding stage to facilitate infection. Activation of alpha4beta1 increased rotavirus infectivity. Cellular treatment with peptides containing the alpha4 integrin ligand sequences Tyr-Gly-Leu and Ile-Asp-Ala eliminated virus binding to alpha4 integrins and infectivity. In contrast, rotavirus recognition of alpha4 integrins was unaffected by a peptide containing the sequence Leu-Asp-Val or by a mutation in the VP7 Leu-Asp-Val sequence. VP4 involvement in rotavirus recognition of alpha4beta1 was demonstrated with rotavirus reassortants. Swapping and point mutagenesis of alpha4 surface loops showed that rotaviruses required the same alpha4 residues and domains for binding as the natural alpha4 integrin ligands: mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1, fibronectin and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1. Several rotaviruses are able to use alpha4beta7 and alpha4beta1 for cell binding or entry, through the recognition of the same alpha4-subunit domains as natural alpha4 ligands.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Epidemiology and impact of rotavirus diarrhoea in Poland.

Hospital and laboratory data were analysed in three hospitals to estimate rotavirus disease burden in 1994-96. Community acquired gastroenteritis was diagnosed in 757 children of whom 41% tested positive for rotavirus. A total of 196 children had rotavirus nosocomial infections (39% of all rotavirus community-acquired and nosocomial cases). Infants less than 24 months old and children less than 3 months old comprised 74% and 11.9% of admissions for rotavirus, respectively. Almost 94% of children with rotavirus infection had severe gastroenteritis (score > or =11). The annual rate of rotavirus associated hospitalization in Poland in 1996 was 3.1/1000 children under the age of 60 months and 5.2/1000 infants under 24 months of age. The mean hospital stay was 9.5 d (+/-9.8 d). We estimated that 8918 children under 60 months of age were hospitalized for rotavirus gastroenteritis in 1996; they accounted for 84899 inpatient days. We conclude that rotavirus is a leading aetiological agent of severe gastroenteritis in young children in Poland and that the burden of this infection is significant. Rotavirus vaccine could significantly decrease the hospitalization rate and the financial impact of rotavirus gastroenteritis in Poland.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMed1983

Isolation, propagation, and characterization of a second equine rotavirus serotype.

A rotavirus designated strain H-2 was isolated in primary African green monkey kidney cells from a foal with diarrhea. This cell culture-adapted strain was found to be similar, if not identical, to simian rotavirus (strains MMU18006 and SA-11) and canine rotavirus (strain CU-1) and, in addition, demonstrated a one-way antigenic relationship with five human rotavirus strains (P, B, no. 14, no. 15, and YO) of the third human rotavirus serotype by the plaque reduction neutralization test. This is the fifth example of an animal rotavirus which shares serotypic specificity with a human rotavirus. The H-2 strain is distinct from the H-1 strain (Y. Hoshino et al., J. Clin. Microbiol., in press) of equine rotavirus not only in serotypic specificity by neutralization but also in subgroup specificity, hemagglutinating activity, and RNA electrophoretic migration pattern, thus establishing the existence of a second equine rotavirus serotype. This H-2 isolate is also distinct by neutralization from three other human rotavirus serotypes, 1 (Wa), 2 (DS-1), and 4 (St. Thomas no. 4), as well as bovine (NCDV), and porcine (OSU) rotaviruses.

Animals↗
PubMed1983

Isolation and characterization of an equine rotavirus.

A rotavirus, designated as the H-1 strain, was isolated from a diarrheic foal in primary African green monkey kidney cells and MA104 cells. This cell culture-adapted strain hemagglutinated erythrocytes of human group O, rhesus monkeys, guinea pigs, and sheep. It was found to be similar, if not identical, to porcine rotaviruses (strains OSU, EE, and A-580) by plaque reduction neutralization and hemagglutination inhibition tests, and, in addition, it was found to belong to subgroup 1. This equine rotavirus has an RNA electrophoretic migration pattern which was distinct from those of the three strains of porcine rotavirus. The serological relationship established by plaque reduction neutralization and hemagglutination inhibition tests between the equine (H-1) and porcine (OSU, EE, and A-580) rotaviruses is an example of a rotavirus of the same serotype being isolated from different species. The H-1 strain was distinct from four human rotavirus serotypes (Wa, DS-1, P, and St. Thomas 4) as well as from bovine rotavirus NCDV, simian rotavirus MMU18006, and canine rotavirus CU-1 by plaque reduction neutralization tests. This equine isolate (H-1) was found to be related antigenically to canine CU-1 and bovine NCDV rotaviruses in a one-way fashion by hemagglutination inhibition tests.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Bovine rotavirus serotypes and their significance for immunization.

Neutralization assays on calf fecal rotavirus with antisera to two previously described bovine rotavirus serotypes allowed the isolation of four rotaviruses belonging to a distinct third serotype. In a survey of 85 calf isolates, 80 rotaviruses belonged to serotype 1 (91%), 1 belonged to serotype 2 (1%), and 4 belonged to serotype 3 (5%). Serotypes 1 and 2 were shown to not cross-protect in a passive immunization experiment in gnotobiotic lambs. Ingestion of specific antiserum protected against infection with the homologous, but not heterologous, serotype. Rabbits with no previous exposure to rotavirus responded to sequential vaccination with bovine and human rotavirus serotypes with antibody specific to those serotypes, and the response did not broaden to include serotypes to which they had not been exposed. These factors suggested the need for multivalent rotavirus vaccines. By contrast, 47 adult cows on 11 farms had neutralizing antibodies to two bovine and three human rotavirus serotypes. After vaccination with one bovine rotavirus serotype, these cows produced a significant increase in antibody titers to these same five serotypes but not to two other serotypes to which they had no preexisting antibody. These results were interpreted to indicate that cows will respond heterotypically after monovalent vaccination to all rotavirus serotypes with which they have had experience and, therefore, that single serotype vaccination may be sufficient. This conclusion has practical importance for rotavirus immunization procedures.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Isolation of a bovine rotavirus with a "super-short" RNA electrophoretic pattern from a calf with diarrhea.

A rotavirus with a "super-short" RNA electropherotype was isolated from a calf with diarrhea and was designated VMRI strain. Segments 10 and 11 of this rotavirus migrated more slowly than did those of bovine rotavirus strains NCDV, B641, and B223. The electrophoretic pattern of the VMRI strain was similar to that reported for rotaviruses with super-short RNA electropherotypes from humans and rabbits. Northern (RNA) blot hybridization indicated that gene 11 of the VMRI strain was altered and migrated between gene segments 9 and 10. The subgroup of the VMRI strain was shown to be subgroup I. The VMRI strain of bovine rotavirus was neutralized by antisera containing polyclonal antibodies to rotavirus serotype 6 (bovine rotavirus serotype I) strains NCDV and B641 and by ascitic fluid containing monoclonal antibodies directed to VP7 of serotype 6 rotavirus. The VMRI strain was not neutralized by either polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies to strain B223 (bovine rotavirus serotype II). Collective data on the neutralization of the VMRI strain with monoclonal antibodies and polyclonal antibodies suggest that this virus is a member of the NCDV group (serotype 6) of rotaviruses (bovine rotavirus serotype I).

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Identification and molecular characterization of a bovine G3 rotavirus which causes age-independent diarrhea in cattle.

G3 rotaviruses have been reported rarely in cattle, and none have been characterized. We report the first genomic characterization of a bovine G3 rotavirus, CP-1, which had been biologically characterized in vivo and shown to cause age-independent diarrhea. CP-1 was a G3 rotavirus as its VP7 had 92 to 96% deduced amino acid identity to those of G3 rotaviruses. However, initially, CP-1 was identified as a G10 rotavirus by RT-PCR even though the CP-1 VP7 had only 81 to 85% deduced amino acid identity to those of G10 rotaviruses. Rotavirus CP-1 was of P[5] specificity, a type common in cattle, and had a bovine NSP1 and NSP4. These results added another animal species to those in which G3 rotaviruses have been found, characterized a bovine rotavirus which caused age-independent diarrhea in calves, and raised the possibility that bovine G3 rotaviruses may be misdiagnosed as G10 rotaviruses.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1981

Rotavirus, adenovirus, and non-viral enteropathogens in diarrhoea.

The aetiology of rotavirus and adenovirus in acute gastroenteritis was studied in a prospective series that comprised 283 children admitted consecutively with diarrhoea during a 1-year period. Rotavirus was associated in 49% of the cases by solid-phase radioimmunoassay and electron microscopical examination of stool specimens, or by serology. Adenovirus was detected by radioimmunoassay in the stool specimens of 29 (11%) patients, including 8 cases of possible dual infection with rotavirus. Rotavirus infections showed a typical age distribution and seasonal clustering between January and June, whereas the adenovirus-associated cases did not form a distinctive subgroup. Enteropathogenic bacteria were found in 10% of cases, and were nearly as common in association with rotavirus infection as not. Respiratory symptoms accompanied diarrhoea in 34% of the patients with rotavirus and in 25% of those with neither rotavirus nor adenovirus. Therefore we could not confirm the existence of a 'rotavirus syndrome', nor could we confirm an association of respiratory symptoms with rotavirus infection. Use of antibiotics before the onset of diarrhoea was more common among those with non-viral diarrhoea (23%) than in the rotavirus group (13%). Rotavirus infections appeared to be common among cases of 'antibiotic-induced' diarrhoea.

Adenoviridae Infections↗
PubMed1980

Cord blood and breast-milk antibodies in neonatal rotavirus infection.

Studies were carried out during an outbreak of rotavirus type 2 infection in a neonatal nursery to determine the protective role of antibodies in cord blood and breast milk. The range, distribution, and geometric mean titres of rotavirus-specific antibody in the cord blood were similar among rotavirus-positive and rotavirus-negative neonates, and the amount of virus excreted did not correlate with antibody levels. Despite the protective effect of breast feeding, the pattern of rotavirus-specific IgA and IgG antibodies in the expressed breast milk of mothers of babies who were rotavirus excreters and non-excreters was similar. Nevertheless, a higher proportion of expressed breast milk samples contained rotavirus-specific IgA group 2 (92%) and type 2 (97%) specific antibodies than type I (67%) antibodies, and the geometric mean titres of group 2 and type 2 specific antibodies were tenfold higher than type I antibodies. Among breast-fed babies who excreted rotavirus there was no correlation between type 2 rotavirus-specific IgA antibodies in expressed breast milk and the amount of neonatal virus excretion. These studies suggest that factors other than the rotavirus antibodies in expressed breast milk are of importance in preventing rotavirus infection in newborn infants.

Antibodies, Viral↗
PubMed2004

Kinetics of rotavirus infection in mice are not altered in a ground-based model of spaceflight.

INTRODUCTION: The effect of simulated spaceflight conditions using the hindlimb unloading model on mucosal immune responses has not been examined. Therefore, we determined whether clearance, protection, and the antibody responses to an enteric pathogen, rotavirus, were altered under simulated spaceflight conditions. METHODS: Groups of mice were either restrained and hindlimb unloaded, restrained without hindlimb unloading, or housed under standard conditions for either 4 or 14 d prior to and an additional 10 d following inoculation with ECwt murine rotavirus. An additional group of mice previously infected with rotavirus was housed under the three conditions for either 4 or 14 d prior to a rotavirus challenge. RESULTS: Hindlimb unloading of mice did not alter clearance of a primary rotavirus infection compared with controls nor were there differences in protection from rotavirus challenge 42 d later between the three groups, all housed under standard conditions. There were no differences in protection from rotavirus challenge in mice that were hindlimb unloaded during the challenge infection compared with controls. The generation of rotavirus-specific fecal antibodies, as measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), was not significantly different between any of the groups following either primary or challenge rotavirus infection. However, serum rotavirus-specific IgG1 antibody was not induced in mice housed under normal conditions and challenged under hindlimb unloading conditions compared with controls. DISCUSSION: These data are the first examination of the mucosal immune response to an enteric viral pathogen under simulated spaceflight conditions and indicate that rotavirus immunity was not impacted in this model.

Animals↗