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PubMed2004

Seasonal pesticide use in a rural community on the US/Mexico border.

An environmental measurement and correlation study of infant and toddler exposure to pesticides was carried out in a colonia south of the city of Laredo, Texas. As part of the study, homes were visited during the late spring or summer, and during the winter of 2000-2001. At each visit, families reported on their use of pesticides in and around the home and floor wipe samples were collected and analyzed for 14 organophosphate and triazine pesticides. Selection of homes was based on the presence of infants and toddlers. A total of 27 homes participated in both seasonal visits. The interval between visits was 6 +/- 1.4 months. Univariate and multivariate nonparametric analyses were carried out using SPSS statistical software. Pesticide use within the home was more often reported than outside use and showed seasonal variation in use patterns. Indoor use was primarily associated with ants and cockroaches, and secondarily with rodents. The primary room treated was the kitchen, and the primary structures treated were the floors, lower walls, and dish cupboards. Seasonal variations were not found in the use of pesticides used outside the home and outdoor use was primarily associated with ant control. Based on parent reports, most pesticides used in the homes were pyrethroids. Several of the pesticides measured in floor wipe samples, Azinphos methyl, Fonofos, and Simazine, also showed seasonal variations. However, these pesticides are used in agriculture and were not associated with reported house and yard use patterns.

Child↗
PubMed2004

Pesticides in rainwater in Flanders, Belgium: results from the monitoring program 1997-2001.

In 1997 the Flemish Environmental Agency (FEA) started a monitoring program "Pesticides in Rain in Flanders, Belgium". The original purpose of the monitoring program was to examine the possible occurrence of dichlorvos in rainwater and subsequent deposition. However, it was thought necessary from the beginning to monitor a wide range of pesticides. During the first year some 62 pesticides and metabolites and 9 polychlorinated biphenyls, were monitored at 4 locations. Nowadays the monitoring program has grown up to more than 100 pesticides and metabolites and 11 polychlorinated biphenyls examined at 8 different locations. Rainwater is collected continuously and samples are examined for pesticides and PCB's on a weekly basis. In agreement with other European studies pesticides are found in rainwater samples during times of application. Pesticides which are most frequently detected are [small alpha]-, [small beta]-endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate, [gamma]-HCH (lindane), dichlorvos, atrazine, diuron, DNOC, glyphosate and AMPA and isoproturon. Furthermore it was seen that most pesticides showed a deposition pattern related to local spraying operations.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Correlation analysis of pesticide use data and cancer incidence rates in California counties.

California, the leading agricultural state in the United States, has maintained a population-based cancer registry since 1988, and it also maintains a comprehensive, state-wide pesticide reporting system. Data on cancer incidence and pesticide use reporting are available, by county, for all 58 counties in California. Average annual age-adjusted cancer incidence rates (1988-1992), on a county-, sex-, and race/ethnicity-specific basis, were obtained from the California Cancer Registry (CCR), which maintains the population-based cancer registry throughout California. Pesticide use data (i.e., pounds of active ingredient applied annually in each county) were obtained from the California Department of Pesticide Regulation for 1993. Investigators used Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients (r) to correlate age-adjusted incidence rates for selected cancers with the use data for selected pesticides. For most sex- and race/ethnicity-specific groups, the correlation coefficients were very close to zero or negative in sign, indicating no correlation between pesticide use and cancer incidence. There were, however, several exceptions, particularly in Hispanic males for whom the following correlations were observed: leukemia and atrazine (r=.40), leukemia and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (r=.41), leukemia and captan (r=.46), atrazine and brain cancer (r=.54), and atrazine and testicular cancer (r=.41). For black males, we observed the following: atrazine and prostate cancer (r=.67) and Captan and prostate cancer (r=.49). In females, only a few of the correlations were elevated. Although most of the correlations examined in this analysis were not elevated, several of those in the Hispanic and black male populations were. These segments of the population have traditionally been employed as farm workers in California and have had the greatest potential for exposure to pesticides. This was an ecological study for which no data about exposure to pesticides at the individual level were available for analysis. In addition, no latency period was allowed between potential exposure and diagnosis with cancer. However, the results obtained in two minority groups who represented the majority of farm workers in the fields suggested that additional research studies, in which more rigorous study designs are used, should be conducted in those groups.

Age Distribution↗
PubMed2003

Cumulative risk assessment of the intake of organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides in the Danish diet.

The aim of the study is to evaluate the potential cumulative effects of organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides that act through a common mechanism of toxicity, and to assess the long- and short-term risks for the Danish population. The intake estimates are based on dietary intake data collected in the Danish nation-wide food consumption survey in 1995. The pesticide data are based on the Danish pesticide residue-monitoring programme from 1996-2001. The amount of 35 organophosphorus pesticides and carbamates were included in the cumulative risk assessment. Processing factors, such as reduction of pesticide levels by rinsing and peeling, were applied in the exposure assessment. The "Toxicity Equivalence Factor" (TEF) approach was used to normalise the toxicity of the different organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides. Cumulative chronic exposure of organophosphorus and carbamates pesticides via fruit, vegetables and cereals is for adults 0.8-2% of the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) in chlorpyrifos equivalents, and 0.03-11% of the ADI in methamidophos equivalents; and for children 2-5% of the ADI in the chlorpyrifos equivalents, and 0.07-27% of the ADI in methamidophos equivalents. Neither Acute Reference Dose (ARfD) nor ADI was exceeded for any of the compounds studied. The results indicate that the Danish population is neither exposed to any cumulative chronic risk, nor at risk of acute exposure, from consumption of organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides from fruit, vegetables and cereals.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Chronic dietary risk for pesticide residues in food in Brazil: an update.

The objective was to conduct a dietary risk assessment of pesticides registered in Brazil up to 14 January 2004. The theoretical maximum daily intake (TMDI) was calculated for 275 compounds using the Brazilian maximum residue limits (MRL) and food consumption. The chronic dietary risk assessment was conducted by comparing the TMDI with the Brazilian acceptable daily intake (ADI) or, when not available, with the ADI from other sources. The TMDI was higher than the ADI (%ADI>100) in at least one Brazilian region for eight pesticides, including five organophosphorus insecticides. For these compounds, the higher TMDI (expressed as %ADI) ranged from 140 (metam sodium) to 14,000 (methyl bromide). Rice, beans, citrus and tomato were the commodities that contributed most to ingestion. Change in pesticide use patterns and the establishment of ADIs by the Brazilian government have reduced the number of compounds for which the TMDI exceeded the ADI in the last 4 years. Risk assessment methodology based on TMDI calculation, however, is conservative as it assumes that the food supply is always treated with all the registered pesticides for that crop and that one always consumes food containing residues at the tolerance level. Furthermore, for six compounds with TMDI exceeding the ADI, a more realistic estimation of the pesticide daily intake was conducted using monitoring residue data from the Brazilian National Pesticide Residue Program. For these compounds, the higher refined intakes ranged from 2% (dimethoate) to 180% (fenitrothion) of the ADIs. The implementation of a national pesticide residue monitoring programme by the government was important to allow the refinement of the risk assessment. However, adequate daily food consumption data are still needed to assess better the public health risk to Brazilian consumers from food produced from crops treated with pesticides.

Brazil↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Control and intake of pesticide residues during 1981-1993 in Finland.

The use of pesticides has been monitored on the basis of sales statistics since 1953 in Finland and the information has been used for targeting the official food control to products where pesticides are mostly used. Food consumption and the earlier control results were also taken into account. The intake of pesticides has been estimated based on the control analysis and statistical food consumption data, where also the ratio of imports was taken into account. The samples were taken by food control authorities and analysed separately. In spite of slight bias owing to sampling for control purposes, the results are representative of the products consumed. The intake estimation method has been classified in the group Estimated Daily Intake (EDI). The intakes of a total of the 53 most commonly found pesticides were estimated. The intakes of the evaluated pesticides were below 2% of ADIs. The average daily intake was 75 micrograms per person in 1992 mainly from imported products, only 24% initiating from domestic products. The intake of pesticides from domestic vegetables, fruits and berries has been evaluated three times during 1977-1993. The daily intake of pesticide residues from these products has decreased from 16.9 micrograms to 3.7 micrograms. The intensive food control has decreased offences against the regulations. The method used seems to be suitable for the longterm monitoring. The average intake of pesticides is at a low level compared with the Acceptable Daily Intakes, thus further estimations by more defined methods are not necessarily needed. The advantage of the method adopted is that residue data can also be used to make more accurate Measured Daily Intake estimates for risk groups such as children and vegetarians.

Environmental Monitoring↗
PubMed2005

Pesticides and essential minerals modify endogenous antioxidants and cytochrome P450 in tissues of rats.

Two experiments were conducted in male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats (175-200 g) to determine changes in the activities of endogenous antioxidants superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), cytochrome P450 (ethoxyresorufin deethylase; EROD) and concentrations of glutathione (GSH) in the blood, liver, and small intestinal mucosa (IM). In both experiments, six rats/group were fed diets based on the AIN-93M diet (Control) or the same modified to contain either 500 mg calcium (Low Ca), 7 mg Zn (Low Zn): 2 mg copper (Low Cu), 60 mg zinc (High Zn) or 12 mg copper (High Cu) in the following combination: Control, LCa/LZn, LCa/LZn/LCu, or HZn/HCu, with and without a pesticide mixture containing acephate, endosulfan, and thiram at 25% LD50 for four or two weeks. Pesticides decreased feed intake and weight gain in all groups by 28%. Erythrocyte SOD was higher than control in the HZn/HCu group and in the LCa/LZn/LCu and HZn/HCu groups with pesticide (P#0.05). Plasma GPX declined by more than 55% in all the groups with and without pesticides compared to the control. The LCa/LZn/LCu and HZn/HCu diets with and without pesticides reduced GPX in the IM by up to 88%, 40%, and 74%, respectively, than the control. Plasma GSH was about 20% higher than the control in most groups with and without pesticides in the diet. Liver and IM GSH were higher than the control in the HZn/HCu group, whereas IM GSH concentrations were lower than the control in the LCa/LZn and LCa/LZn/LCu groups (P#0.05). All three experimental diets with and without pesticides had a significant effect on liver EROD activity (P#0.05). The results indicate that endogenous antioxidants and EROD were independently modified by dietary zinc and copper levels and pesticides.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Photocatalytic oxidation of pesticide rinsate.

Pesticide rinsate has been considered as one of the major threats for the environment. In this study, photocatalysts such as TiO2 and O3 were used to promote the efficiency of direct UV photolysis to prevent such wastewater pollution. Carbofuran (a carbamate pesticide) and mevinphos (an organophosphate pesticide) with a concentration of 100 mg/L were selected as the test pesticide rinsates. Parent pesticide compound, COD, and microtoxicity analysis were employed to investigate the effect of photocatalyst on the degradation efficiency of pesticide in rinsate. It was found that the photocatalytic oxidation process (UV/O3, UV/TiO2) showed much higher COD removal and microtoxicity reduction efficiency for pesticide rinsate than did direct UV photolysis under the imposed conditions, suggesting that photocatalytic oxidation processes such as UV/O3 and UV/TiO2 could be a better alternative to treat pesticide rinsate. In addition, it was noted that increasing the initial pH of mevinphos rinsate to a basic level was required to reach higher COD removal efficiency and positive microtoxicity reduction efficiency while it was not necessary for the treatment of carbofuran rinsate.

Carbofuran↗
PubMed2006

Pesticide exposure and timing of menopause: the Agricultural Health Study.

Age at menopause has implications for fertility and risk of hormonally related chronic diseases. Some pesticides disrupt reproductive hormones or are toxic to the ovary, but little is known about the association between pesticide exposure and timing of menopause. Cox proportional hazards modeling was used to examine the association between use of pesticides and age at menopause among 8,038 women living and working on farms in Iowa and North Carolina. Premenopausal women aged 35-55 years were followed from enrollment (1993-1997) to the date of their last menstrual period, or their follow-up interview (1999-2003) if still premenopausal. Women who experienced surgical menopause were censored at the date of surgery. Approximately 62% of the women reported ever mixing or applying pesticides; women who had never used pesticides were the comparison group for all analyses. After control for age, smoking status, and past use of oral contraceptives, the median time to menopause increased by approximately 3 months for women who used pesticides (hazard ratio = 0.87, 95% confidence interval: 0.78, 0.97) and by approximately 5 months for women who used hormonally active pesticides (hazard ratio = 0.77, 95% confidence interval: 0.65, 0.92). Pesticide use may be associated with a later age at menopause.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Reported residential pesticide use and breast cancer risk on Long Island, New York.

Pesticides, common environmental exposures, have been examined in relation to breast cancer primarily in occupational studies or exposure biomarker studies. No known studies have focused on self-reported residential pesticide use. The authors investigated the association between reported lifetime residential pesticide use and breast cancer risk among women living on Long Island, New York. They conducted a population-based case-control study of 1,508 women newly diagnosed with breast cancer between August 1996 and July 1997 and 1,556 randomly selected, age-frequency-matched controls. Comprehensive residential pesticide use and other risk factors were assessed by using an in-person, interviewer-administered questionnaire. Unconditional logistic regression was used to calculate odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals. Breast cancer risk was associated with ever lifetime residential pesticide use (odds ratio = 1.39, 95% confidence interval: 1.15, 1.68). However, there was no evidence of increasing risk with increasing lifetime applications. Lawn and garden pesticide use was associated with breast cancer risk, but there was no dose response. Little or no association was found for nuisance-pest pesticides, insect repellents, or products to control lice or fleas and ticks on pets. This study is the first known to suggest that self-reported use of residential pesticides may increase breast cancer risk. Further investigation in other populations is necessary to confirm these findings.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Chromosomal aberration and single cell gel electrophoresis (Comet) assay in the longitudinal risk assessment of occupational exposure to pesticides.

In recent years the use of pesticides in agriculture has been increasing steadily. At present there are more than 1000 chemicals classified as pesticides. Therefore, the widespread use of pesticides and their potential genetic hazard suggests that evaluation of their genotoxicity should be extended using the newer assays now available. In the present study chromosomal aberration analysis and the alkaline single cell gel electrophoresis (Comet) assay were used to evaluate the extent of DNA damage and DNA repair in peripheral blood lymphocytes of subjects employed in pesticide production. In order to determine possible primary genotoxic effects in workers blood samples were taken after an 8 month long period of exposure to a complex mixture of pesticides. To detect the possible occurrence of DNA repair in lymphocytes of the same subjects the second blood sample was taken after an 8 month long period of absence from the pesticide exposure zone. Regardless of the period of sampling, in the exposed group statistically significantly increased numbers of aberrant cells, chromatid and chromosome breaks, acentric fragments and dicentric chromosomes compared with the controls were found. After the workers had spent 8 months out of the pesticide exposure zone the number of aberrant cells and all types of chromatid and chromosome aberrations decreased significantly compared with sampling after the high exposure period, but it still remained significantly higher in comparison with the control group. After the period of high exposure to a mixture of pesticides statistically significantly increased levels of DNA damage in the Comet assay in terms of tail length and tail moment were found. After the workers were removed from production for 8 months both Comet assay end-points decreased significantly compared with the first sampling point, but they remained increased compared with the control.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Safe handling of agricultural pesticides in Minnesota: results of a county-wide educational intervention.

Safe pesticide handling in a group of Minnesota farmers, aged 40 years and older, was influenced through the use of a multifaceted, countywide educational intervention. Two intervention counties and two control counties were involved in this effort. The intervention consisted of mailed pesticide information to farm households, educational programs on pesticides for county physicians, elementary school training modules on pesticides and the use of safe pesticide handling displays in key business areas by agricultural extension agents. Five hundred eight farmers were identified as pesticide users (186 in the intervention counties and 322 in the control counties). The use of gloves and other protective clothing while handling pesticides increased in the intervention group. Improvement was greater in those who had used protective equipment the least before the intervention. From these results, it appears that a broad-based educational intervention might have a modest impact in how farmers protect themselves when using pesticides.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Chemical predictors of wheeze among farmer pesticide applicators in the Agricultural Health Study.

Pesticides may contribute to respiratory symptoms among farmers. Using the Agricultural Health Study, a large cohort of certified pesticide applicators in Iowa and North Carolina, we explored the association between wheeze and pesticide use in the past year. Self-administered questionnaires contained items on 40 currently used pesticides and pesticide application practices. A total of 20,468 applicators, ranging in age from 16 to 88 years, provided complete information; 19% reported wheezing in the past year. Logistic regression models controlling for age, state, smoking, and history of asthma or atopy were used to evaluate associations between individual pesticides and wheeze. Among pesticides suspected to contribute to wheeze, paraquat, three organophosphates (parathion, malathion, and chlorpyrifos), and one thiocarbamate (S-ethyl-dipropylthiocarbamate [EPTC] ) had elevated odds ratios (OR). Parathion had the highest OR (1.5, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.0, 2.2). Chlorpyrifos, EPTC, paraquat, and parathion demonstrated significant dose-response trends. The herbicides, atrazine and alachlor, but not 2,4-D, were associated with wheeze. Atrazine had a significant dose-response trend with participants applying atrazine more than 20 days/year having an OR of 1.5 (95% CI 1.2,1.9). Inclusion of crops and animals into these models did not significantly alter the observed OR. These associations, though small, suggest an independent role for specific pesticides in respiratory symptoms of farmers.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Pesticide health and safety and the work and impact of international agencies: partial successes and major failures.

The paper explores aspects of the international role and impact of key agencies in informing regulators and users about pesticides and controlling and preventing pesticide poisoning worldwide. The WHO, IPCS, ILO, World Bank, and related organizations such as ICPS, for instance, all have effects. Particular attention is paid to the IPCS environmental health criteria documents on pesticides. Political and economic influences affect decisions about whether or not to use pesticides, and the risk assessments and data used to assess pesticides. This has significant influence on the selection and use of particular pesticides and hence on both acute and chronic pesticide poisoning cases globally. Progress has been made to correct these covert and damaging influences and imbalances, but more needs to be done to ensure proper accountability and transparency in pesticide health and safety policy and practice.

Chemical Industry↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Community monitoring of integrated pest management versus conventional pesticide use in a World Bank project in Indonesia.

Pesticide Action Network North America (PANNA) collaborated with a local Indonesian nongovernmental organization (NGO), Yayasan Duta Awam (YDA), in monitoring impacts of the World Bank-financed Integrated Swamps Development Project (ISDP). This paper reports the results of the community-based investigation, which found wide disparities between the World Bank's policy on pest management and its implementation. Instead of reducing farmers' reliance on pesticides as required, the ISDP led to increased intensity and frequency of pesticide use and adverse health and environmental effects from pesticide exposures. YDA and PANNA presented the findings to the Indonesian government and World Bank officials, and farmers requested training in IPM among other recommendations. After NGOs undertook joint advocacy efforts to reduce pesticide dependence in the project, the World Bank withdrew hazardous pesticides from input packages, IPM training was initiated, and community monitors became local leaders in their villages. The study demonstrates the importance and efficacy of independent community-based monitoring in documenting pesticide problems and replacing pesticides with IPM in World Bank development projects.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2006

Occupational pesticide intoxications among farmers in Bolivia: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Pesticide use and its consequences are of concern in Bolivia due to an intensive and increasing use. METHODS: To assess the magnitude and reasons for occupational pesticide intoxication, a cross-sectional study with interviews and blood-tests was performed among 201 volunteer farmers from 48 villages in the temperate and subtropical valleys in the eastern part of the Andes Mountains in Bolivia. Of these 171 male farmers using pesticides in their agricultural production were used in the statistical analysis, including linear- and logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: This study documented a frequent use of the most toxic pesticides among farmers who have had almost no instructions in how to use pesticides and protect themselves against the dangers of intoxication, reflected in the hazardous practices used when handling pesticides. Symptoms of intoxications were common in connection with spraying operations. The risk of experiencing symptoms and the serum cholinesterase activity were influenced by whether or not organophosphates were used and the number of times sprayed. The experience of symptoms was moreover influenced by the hygienic and personal protective measures taken during spraying operations while this had no influence on the serum cholinesterase level. CONCLUSION: The study showed that occupational pesticide intoxications were common among farmers and did depend on multiple factors. Pesticide use is probably one of the largest toxicological problems in Bolivia, and a coordinated action by authorities, society and international bodies is needed to limit the number of intoxications and the environmental pollution.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Assessment of risk reduction strategies for the management of agricultural nonpoint source pesticide runoff in estuarine ecosystems.

Agricultural nonpoint source (NPS) runoff may result in significant discharges of pesticides, suspended sediments, and fertilizers into estuarine habitats adjacent to agricultural areas or downstream from agricultural watersheds. Exposure of estuarine fin fish and shellfish to toxic levels of pesticides may occur, resulting in significant declines in field populations. Integrated pest management (IPM), best management practices (BMP), and retention ponds (RP) are risk management tools that have been proposed to reduce the contaminant risk from agricultural NPS runoff into estuarine ecosystems. Field studies were conducted at three sites within coastal estuarine ecosystems of South Carolina (SC) from 1985 to 1990 that varied in terms of the amount and degree of risk reduction strategies employed. An intensively managed (IPM, BMP, and RP) agricultural treatment site (TRT) was studied for pesticide runoff impacts. From 1985 to 1987, there were minimal (some IPM and BMP) management activities at TRT, but from 1988 to 1990, TRT was managed using an intensive risk reduction strategy. A second unmanaged agricultural growing area, Kiawah (KWA), was also studied and compared with TRT in terms of pesticide runoff and the resulting impacts on grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio) and mummichogs (Fundulus heteroclitus). A third, non-agricultural, reference site (CTL) was used for comparing results from the managed and unmanaged agricultural sites. In situ toxicity tests and field samples of the grass shrimp populations were conducted at each site and compared in terms of survival and the effectiveness of current risk reduction strategies. Significant runoff of insecticides (azinphosmethyl, endosulfan, and fenvalerate) along with several fish kills were observed at TRT prior to the implementation of rigorous risk reduction methods. A significant reduction of in stream pesticide concentrations (up to 90%) was observed at TRT following the implementation of strict NPS runoff controls, which greatly reduced impacts on estuarine fish and shellfish. At the unmanaged KWA, continued impacts due to the runoff of these insecticides were observed, along with several fish kills. Additional monitoring indicated that gravid female grass shrimp populations from KWA had elevated levels of P-glycoprotein (P-gp), a multidrug resistance protein, which may transport various pesticides across cellular membranes. Comparison of field results with laboratory toxicity tests established that pesticide exposure was the primary cause of observed field impacts at each site. These findings clearly indicate the value of an integrated risk reduction strategy (BMP, IPM, and RP) for minimizing impacts from NPS agricultural pesticide runoff.

ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Mem↗
PubMed2006

Geographic model and biomarker-derived measures of pesticide exposure and Parkinson's disease.

For more than two decades, reports have suggested that pesticides and herbicides may be an etiologic factor in idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD). To date, no clear associations with any specific pesticide have been demonstrated from epidemiological studies perhaps, in part, because methods of reliably estimating exposures are lacking. We tested the validity of a Geographic Information Systems (GIS)-based exposure assessment model that estimates potential environmental exposures at residences from pesticide applications to agricultural crops based on California Pesticide Use Reports (PUR). Using lipid-adjusted dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) serum levels as the "gold standard" for pesticide exposure, we conducted a validation study in a sample taken from an ongoing, population-based case-control study of PD in Central California. Residential, occupational, and other risk factor data were collected for 22 cases and 24 controls from Kern county, California. Environmental GIS-PUR-based organochlorine (OC) estimates were derived for each subject and compared to lipid-adjusted DDE serum levels. Relying on a linear regression model, we predicted log-transformed lipid-adjusted DDE serum levels. GIS-PUR-derived OC measure, body mass index, age, gender, mixing and loading pesticides by hand, and using pesticides in the home, together explained 47% of the DDE serum level variance (adjusted r(2) = 0.47). The specificity of using our environmental GIS-PUR-derived OC measures to identify those with high-serum DDE levels was reasonably good (87%). Our environmental GIS-PUR-based approach appears to provide a valid model for assessing residential exposures to agricultural pesticides.

California↗