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PubMed1986

[Mechanisms of the control of appetite].

The peripheral control of appetite is effected by two digestive hormones produced by the stomach and intestine. Bombesin, induced by gastric distension, might act as a messenger informing the nervous centres that the subject is satiated. The pharmacological satiating effect of cholecystokinin, probably mediated by the afferent fibres of the vagus nerve, is well established, but its physiological effect has not yet been demonstrated. Centrally, appetite is controlled by neurotransmitters, satiating and orexigenic properties being shared between monoamines, benzodiazepine-receptors and GABA-receptors. Among digestive hormones present in the central nervous system, the most satiating in pharmacological doses seem to be cholecystokinin and calcitonin, but their physiological role remains obscure. Insulin might be the signal informing the hypothalamus on body fat mass. Endorphins exert an orexigenic effect, reversed by naloxone, which is particularly marked in case of stress, in obese subjects and in the presence of highly palatable food. The control of appetite therefore is complex. It cannot be separated from other functions, such as pain and pleasure, which are regulated by intracerebral peptides.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Comparison of the effects of aspartame and sucrose on appetite and food intake.

We have studied the effects of consumption of foods sweetened with either sucrose or aspartame on appetite ratings and food intake. Normal weight, non-dieting subjects ate the same amount of high- and low-calorie versions of pudding or jello and despite the resulting difference in caloric intake, showed only a non-significant trend towards compensation in a lunch one or two hours later. There were no significant differences between rated hunger, fullness, desire to eat, the amount subjects wanted to eat, or sensory-specific satiety following the high- and low-calorie foods. Knowing the caloric values of the foods did not influence intake or appetite ratings in that both informed and uninformed subjects responded similarly. Thus in the short term subjects tended to eat a constant amount of a particular food and this volume had a greater effect on appetite ratings and subsequent intake than the calories consumed.

Appetite↗
PubMed1987

Carbohydrate taste, appetite, and obesity: an overview.

This paper reviews previous research on sugar appetite and sugar-induced overeating and obesity in the rat, and previews new findings reported in this issue on the rat's taste and appetite for starch and starch-derived polysaccharides. A variety of behavioral methods demonstrate that rats are very attracted to the taste of sugars. At low molar concentrations their order of preference is maltose greater than sucrose greater than glucose = fructose, while at high concentrations it is sucrose greater than maltose greater than glucose = fructose. New findings indicate that rats are also very attracted to starch-derived polysaccharides, such as Polycose. In fact, Polycose is preferred to sucrose and maltose at low concentrations, and is second only to sucrose in preference at high concentrations. Furthermore, rats taste Polycose as qualitatively different from sucrose. These and other findings suggest that rats as well as other rodents have different taste receptors for sugar and starch. The role of these two taste systems in carbohydrate-induced overeating and obesity is discussed. Rats tend to overeat and become obese when fed sugar or polysaccharide diets, but this response depends critically on the form of the diet. Presenting the carbohydrate as a solution or gel supplement to the diet is much more effective in promoting hyperphagia and obesity than is presenting it as a powder supplement or as part of a composite diet. The differential response to hydrated and dehydrated foods may occur because carbohydrates are absorbed at a faster rate in hydrated forms than in dehydrated forms. The postingestive actions of carbohydrates also modulate the rat's preference for carbohydrate tastes and flavors. Other factors that influence carbohydrate appetite and intake include the availability of the carbohydrate source and the macronutrient composition of the diet. Thus, several factors in addition to taste determine the response of rats to carbohydrate foods.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Appetite stimulation with megestrol acetate in cachectic cancer patients.

Cachexia is often a severe problem in the management of cancer and other illnesses because it adds to the morbidity of the underlying disease and complicates its treatment. Megestrol acetate has been observed anecdotally to produce weight gain. A review of our experience, and our ongoing phase I/II study of high-dose megestrol acetate for breast cancer, revealed that weight gain occurred in nearly one third (27%) of patients at conventional doses (160 mg/d), and that a marked weight gain (median, 5.1 kg; range, 0.9 to 20.1 kg) occurred in 27 of 28 patients with breast cancer during treatment with high doses of megestrol acetate. Subjective improvement in appetite occurred in most patients at low doses and in most patients at high doses. Further, nearly one half (48%) of patients at conventional doses and virtually all patients at high doses experienced an increased sense of well-being. Our data suggest that megestrol acetate has a potential role in producing subjective improvement, sense of well-being, and increase in appetite and weight, and that the effect may be dose related. Further research is necessary to understand the mechanism of appetite stimulation and/or anabolic effect.

Adult↗
PubMed1979

Short-term effects of energy density on salivation, hunger and appetite in obese subjects.

Obese patients were admitted to a metabolic unit for weight loss. On two paired-test days subjects were given disguised preloads of 100 kcal (0.42MJ) or 300 kcal (1.26MJ). When presented with a meal one hour after the preload, subjects salivated more and reported more hunger, but not appetite, after the low compared to the high preload. A different group of 14 subjects were given preloads of the same energy content (200 kcal, 0.84MJ) on paired-test days. On one day they took 1 g methyl cellulose with 100 ml water drink immediately before the preload. Neither the energy-dilution effect of the water, nor the effect of the methyl cellulose caused a significant decrease in salivation, hunger or appetite scores one hour after the preloads of equal energy content. These results show that salivation and hunger are inversely related to short-term changes in energy intake in obese subjects. Alterations in energy density without changing energy intake or the ingestion of methyl cellulose have no effect on salivation, hunger or appetite.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1983

Effects of captopril on salt appetite in sodium-replete rats and rats treated with desoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA).

Captopril (30 mg/kg daily by gavage), an orally active inhibitor of angiotensin-converting enzyme, reduced the intake of 0.15 M NaCl in rats treated with desoxycorticosterone acetate (2.5 mg/day S.C.). However, this is probably not a specific effect on salt appetite as captopril (30 or 60 mg/kg daily) did not reduce the intake of less palatable 0.5 M NaCl in desoxycorticosterone acetate-treated rats (1 or 2.5 mg daily). In contrast, captopril given alone (30 or 60 mg/kg daily) consistently caused a 3- to 5-fold increase in intake of 0.5 M NaCl that usually began on the 1st day and persisted until treatment stopped (1-3 weeks). Sodium intake and sodium excretion increased concomitantly, but the stimulation of salt appetite occurred even in the absence of sodium depletion. Also, the effect on salt appetite was specific; captopril did not increase the intake of 0.5 M KCl or 0.03 M sucrose. This potent and specific stimulation of sodium intake by oral treatment with an inhibitor of the renin-angiotensin system may be caused by a paradoxical increase in the synthesis of angiotensin II in the brain.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Effects of DSP-4-induced depletion of brain norepinephrine on appetitive and aversive memory retrieval.

This study examined whether depletion of central norepinephrine produces an improved retrieval of aversive memories in the same way as pre-exposure to inescapable footshocks, in rats. Animals conditioned in a T-maze with appetitive (10% sucrose) and aversive (2.0 mA footshock) events were given a single dose of DSP-4 (100, 200 or 400 micrograms/rat) or drug vehicle ICV 24 hr later. The retention performance and activity were assessed 48 hr after the treatment with this neurotoxin. DSP-4 had no effect on open field activities but enhanced latencies to enter both, previously shocked and appetitively reinforced, goalboxes. The data thus, suggest that central administration of DSP-4 does not result in selective enhanced aversive memories. On the contrary, post-trial NE depletion with this neurotoxin might interfere with the retrieval of previously learned association with appetitive stimuli. DSP-4 significantly reduced monoamines, depending upon the brain regions assayed and the doses studied. However, only decreased NE in striatum coincided with the memory changes suggesting that NE innervation to striatum may participate in the retrieval process.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Quality of life, appetite, and weight change in patients receiving dose-intensive chemotherapy.

Quality of life was assessed by self-report questionnaires in 30 patients receiving dose-intensive chemotherapy for either non-small-cell lung cancer (20 patients) or recurrent head and neck cancer (10 patients). Megestrol acetate was given daily to try to improve appetite and prevent the weight loss usually associated with this chemotherapy. Appetite did not change significantly overall during the first 4 weeks of chemotherapy, but it did improve in those patients still receiving chemotherapy at 8 weeks. Changes in global quality of life were significantly correlated with changes in appetite, fatigue, energy level, and physical function. Thus, these parameters may have more relevance to patients' perceptions of quality of life than does weight change, and should be used more frequently as endpoints in studies of supportive care and palliative treatment of patients with cancer.

Antineoplastic Agents↗
PubMed1996

Effects of short-term exercise on appetite responses in unrestrained females.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the short-term effects of exercise and diet composition on appetite in unrestrained females. DESIGN: A 2 x 2 repeated measures design study was conducted, with exercise and lunch type as the repeated factors. SETTING: The Human Appetite Research Unit at Leeds University Psychology department. SUBJECTS: 13 unrestrained, normal weight females were recruited from the student and staff population of Leeds University. INTERVENTIONS: Subjects were assigned to four experimental treatments in a counterbalanced order. These were a control (no-exercise) session and an intense (70% VO2 max) exercise session followed by a free-selection test lunch consisting of high-fat/low-carbohydrate or low-fat/high-carbohydrate foods. The effects of exercise and lunch type were measured by monitoring energy intake and macronutrient intake during the test lunches only. Visual analogue scales were used to monitor profiles of motivation to eat during the treatments. RESULTS: Subjects did not experience the marked suppression of hunger induced by exercise, which is a striking and robust finding in men. Moreover, unlike men, females rated a range of foods to be more palatable after exercise (F(1,12) = 8.0, P < 0.05). Similar to male subjects, exercise in females had no significant short-term effect on energy or macronutrient intake. Energy intake was significantly influenced by the fat:carbohydrate composition of the foods available (F(1,12) = 64.7, P < 0.001), and the short-term energy deficit induced by exercise when followed by low-fat lunch was completely wiped out when exercise was followed by a high-fat lunch (F(1,12) = 66.2, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: These results show that there are similarities and differences between males and females in the appetite response to foods varying in macronutrient composition following vigorous exercise. The differences may help to explain why exercise so often produces a disappointing effect on weight control in females.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Interaction of hydration and subfornical organ lesions in sodium-depletion induced salt appetite.

The authors tested whether the level of hydration after furosemide diuresis and 22 hr of sodium depletion affects the amount of water or 0.3 M NaCl solution consumed by rats with intact brains or with lesions of the subfornical organ (SFO). Rats received 2 (underhydrated) or 10 (euhydrated) ml/kg water by gavage as the only fluid input 2, 4, and 20 hr after 10 mg/kg furosemide. These hydration treatments had little or no effect on the amount of saline consumed in 2 hr by intact rats. SFO lesions reduced water intake regardless of hydration condition. Euhydrated, SFO-lesioned rats drank a normal amount of saline, but underhydrated, lesioned rats drank less saline than any other group. Thus, euhydration may facilitate salt appetite in SFO-lesioned rats, and the deficits in salt appetite noted in SFO-lesioned rats may result from deficits in water ingestion rather than from a destruction of angiotensin II receptor sites that directly provoke salt appetite.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Gut hormones in the control of appetite.

Obesity is one of the greatest threats to the health of the developed world. In order to design effective drugs to treat the alarming increase in obesity, it is essential to understand the physiology of normal appetite control and the pathophysiology of obesity. The hypothalamus interprets and integrates neural and humoral inputs to provide a coordinated feeding and energy expenditure response. Recent evidence suggests that certain gut hormones - ghrelin, polypeptide YY, pancreatic polypeptide, glucagon-like-peptide 1 and oxyntomodulin - have a physiological role in governing satiety via the hypothalamus. Gut hormone appetite-regulatory systems represent a potential target for the design of antiobesity drugs.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Pavlovian aversive and appetitive odor conditioning in humans: subjective, peripheral, and electrocortical changes.

Differential Pavlovian conditioning of aversive and appetitive odors was examined in 30 male healthy subjects. The appetitive conditioning group (n=15) received a pleasant odor (vanilla), the aversive conditioning group (n=15) an unpleasant odor (fermented yeast) as unconditioned stimulus. Slides of two different neutral faces that were easy to discriminate served as conditioned stimuli (CS). An EEG was recorded from nine electrodes. Electromyographic activity was measured bilaterally from the m. corrugator supercilii and m. zygomaticus. The startle response was obtained from the m. orbicularis oculi. Finally, heart rate and skin conductance response were assessed. The subjective data and the skin conductance response revealed successful differential aversive conditioning. By contrast, the pleasant odor failed to produce appetitive odor conditioning. The conditioned and unconditioned response of the corrugator muscles confirm previous reports on the m. corrugator being strongly involved in the expression of negative affect. Contrary to previous findings, magnitude of the startle reflex was not found to be modulated depending on the valence of the CS. Central psychophysiological parameters showed little change during differential conditioning. The presence of subjective-evaluative conditioning and contingency awareness without significant changes in cortical and cardiovascular correlates might be due to extremely localized cortical processing of conditioned olfactory cues or primarily subcortical processing. The latter interpretation is strengthened by the presence of differential conditioning in non-voluntary responses such as the corrugator muscles.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Effects of lipopolysaccharide treatment on feeding of goldfish: role of appetite-regulating peptides.

The gram-negative bacteria-derived endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is known to play an important role in immune and neurological manifestations during bacterial infections. In mammals, peripheral or brain administration of LPS induces anorexia and is thought to exert its effects through activation of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In this study, we investigated the effects of peripheral (intraperitoneal, IP) and central (intracerebroventricular, ICV) injections of LPS on food intake of goldfish. Fish treated IP with 10, 25, 50, 100 or 250 ng/g LPS or ICV with 1, 10 and 100 ng/g LPS showed a significant dose-dependent decrease in food intake, compared to the saline-treated fish. We also examined the brain mRNA expression of several hypothalamic appetite-related neuropeptides in response to the administration of LPS. IP injections of LPS (100 ng/g) induced a decrease in NPY expression and an increase in CCK, CRF and CART expression. These results indicate that LPS is a potent anorexigenic factor in goldfish and that this endotoxin induces a reduction in appetite, at least in part, by influencing gene expression of appetite-related neuropeptides.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Sexual motivation: a neural and behavioural analysis of the mechanisms underlying appetitive and copulatory responses of male rats.

Experiments investigating the neural mechanisms underlying the expression of masculine sexual behaviour are discussed in the context of the hypothesis set out by Frank Beach that suggested the existence of separate sexual arousal and performance mechanisms. The results indicate that the medial preoptic area is crucially involved in consummatory aspects of sexual behaviour: lesions and chemical manipulations of the area profoundly affect mounts, intromissions and ejaculation, but tend not to alter appetitive sexual responses. By contrast, ventral striatal dopamine-dependent mechanisms primarily affect appetitive sexual responses, measured in a variety of paradigms, but tend not to alter copulatory behaviour itself. Finally, associative mechanisms, for example those by which arbitrary environmental stimuli come to control appetitive sexual responses through their predictive association with sexual reinforcement, are shown to depend at least in part on interactions between the basolateral amygdala and dopamine-dependent events in the ventral striatum. Thus, diverse neural and behavioural procedures have revealed that separable neural mechanisms appear to be involved more or less selectively with different components of the male rat's sexual response system. It may still be useful to conceptualize separate sexual arousal and intromission/ejaculatory mechanisms when studying the neuroendocrine basis of sexual behaviour. However, a major challenge is to understand the way in which elements of the telencephalic limbic system, the striatum and preoptic area, some of which are targets for the action of sex steroids, interact to produce an integrated pattern of sexual behaviour.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

CS-US delay does not impair appetitive conditioning in Chasmagnathus.

Habituation and appetitive conditioning have been already described in the crab Chasmagnathus. The purpose of this work is to study whether associative learning can be obtained despite a long conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus interval. Results of the first experiment show that the weakening of temporal contiguity does not prevent appetitive conditioning to occur while after a long 4-h delay, conditioning wanes completely. A second experiment was conducted, after one and three days of training respectively, confirming the above results. Though initially neutral the context trace may be still available immediately after training and for the period of two but not after 4:00 h, demonstrating a forward limit for the conditioning window. After 3 days of training, a further decrease in the exploratory activity suggested that a longer training could increase the relative weight of habituation. Conditioning and habituation seem to work as opponent processes in the crab CHASMAGNATHUS GRANULATUS: if habituation training in the box is followed by the administration of reinforcement after a short period of time, appetitive conditioning will take place. However, as this interval is increased, habituation prevails. A persistent effect of the exposure to a given environment that may underlie trace conditioning in this crab is discussed in adaptive terms.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2000

Appetite dysfunction in obese males: evidence for role of hyperinsulinaemia in passive overconsumption with a high fat diet.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that caloric and fat intake in a pre-load meal have no subsequent effects upon blood glucose and insulin concentrations, perceived hunger, subsequent food intake and appetite control in lean and obese men. DESIGN: Lean and obese men reported to the laboratory in the morning in a fasted state where they were subject to an eating test based on the pre-load-test meal paradigm, using a double-blind protocol. The breakfast pre-load was either a reduced caloric low-fat (LF) meal or an overfeeding high-fat (HF) meal. LF was 20% of each individual's average daily energy requirement (ADER) and comprised 60% carbohydrate, 27% protein, and 13% fat, whilst HF was adjusted to yield 55% of the ADER, and comprised 45% carbohydrate, 22% protein and 43% fat. The pre-loads on both trials were administered as one single mean, and were given in a random order. After 5(1/2) h, an ad libitum test-lunch was given to determine how much energy was consumed. Between the two meals, blood samples were collected and subjective hunger ratings were assessed hourly. These variables were measured at 30-min intervals for 75 min after the ad libitum meal. STUDY PARTICIPANTS: Twelve healthy men, six of whom were lean (BMI 22. 50+/-1.08 kg.m2) and six of whom were obese (BMI 39.05+/-11.63 kg. m2) were recruited. RESULTS: When given 55% of their ADER in a HF pre-load meal, the obese group consumed more energy (5426+/-1126 kJ; F1,20=11.45, P<0.01), than the lean group did (3473+/-1114 kJ), accounting for 45% of the ADER in that meal setting. However, no differences between lean and obese intake were noted at the test meal following a LF pre-load. The lean group exhibited a significant inverse correlation (r=0.628, P<0.05) between serum insulin concentration before eating the test meal and the amount of energy consumed at the test meal, while such a relationship was absent in the obese group. CONCLUSION: The obese males were unable to compensate for the caloric overloading when fed a HF (55% ADER) pre-load at a subsequent test meal, whereas a calorically reduced pre-load (20% ADER) produced similar intakes to the lean control group. The inverse relationship noted in the lean group between insulin levels before the test meal and the energy intake at that test meal suggests that insulin may play a role in the regulation of appetite - satiety mechanism in lean males. The absence of such a relationship in the obese may suggest the site for possible appetite dysfunction contributing to obesity. These results further suggest that when obese individuals consume a high-fat meal they are prone to passive overconsumption, whereas lean study participants appear to be more resistant to such a phenomenon.

Adult↗
PubMed1977

Increased appetite (bulimia) in Parkinson's disease.

Five patients with Parkinson's disease, when first seen, manifested an abnormal increase in appetite. This bulimia decreased concomitantly with clinical improvement in the parkinsonism during treatment with L-dopa plus a decarboxylase inhibitor. A possible role of dopamine in the central control of appetite is discussed. Abnormally increased appetite (bulimia) is proposed as a new autonomic sign in Parkinson's disease.

Aged↗
PubMed1986

Hepatic contribution to satiation of salt appetite in rats.

We examined the influence of hepatic-portal vein infusion of NaCl and of hepatic vagotomy on 3% NaCl solution drinking by sodium-deficient rats. Combined dietary sodium restriction and administration of the natriuretic agent, furosemide (5 mg), produced a vigorous appetite for 3% NaCl solution that was attenuated by portal infusion of NaCl. Whereas infusions (1 ml/30 min) of NaCl into the hepatic-portal vein in concentrations as low as 0.15 M (isotonic) significantly reduced 3% NaCl consumption, a higher concentration (0.6 M) infused into the jugular vein, or portal infusions of KCl (0.6 M) or sucrose (1.2 M), were ineffective. Rats with selective hepatic vagotomy displayed an attenuated appetite for salt whether or not they received hepatic-portal NaCl. This was not due to altered excretion of sodium. Taken together, these results suggest that the liver or portal vein can provide a sodium-specific neural signal capable of attenuating the appetite for salt and this information is transferred to the brain by fibers in the hepatic vagus that fire in reciprocal relationship with portal sodium concentration.

Animals↗