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PubMed1983

Interaction of series and parallel dead space in the lung.

The volume of ventilation delivered to unperfused zones of the respiratory system (respiratory dead space) can be divided into the volume occupied by the conducting airways (series dead space) and the volume of unperfused alveolar space (parallel dead space). The effect of the interaction between these two components of dead space on steady-state gas exchange was first evaluated with a mathematical model. The presence of both parallel and series dead space was predicted to underestimate the dead space measured by the inert gas elimination technique (VDIG). This error was largest when the volumes of parallel and series dead space were equal. The size of the parallel dead space in the model could be calculated from measurements of VDIG made before and after adding a series dead space of known volume. In 16 anesthetized dogs series and parallel dead space were quantitated using the multiple inert gas elimination technique with addition of known volumes of series dead space. In five normal dogs, the series and parallel dead space averaged 20% and 13% of the tidal volume, respectively. In eleven dogs with the left pulmonary artery occluded the parallel dead space averaged 26%. This method represents the first means of quantitating these two anatomically separate components of wasted ventilation.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Geometrical structures of photographic and stereoscopic spaces.

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the geometrical structures of photographic and stereoscopic spaces. In Experiment 1, it was investigated how accurately photographic space reproduces real physical space, and the geometrical structure of photographic space was compared with that of visual space. As a result, the mapping function of distance between photographic and physical spaces (delta = ad(b)) shows that a and b range from 0.96-1.1 and 0.69-0.78. The mapping function of angle between photographic and physical spaces (phi = g phi(h)) shows that g and h range from 2.37-5.29 and 0.74-0.97. Further, photographic space has larger anisotropic property than visual space and photographic space may be hyperbolic. In Experiment 2, the geometrical structure of stereoscopic space was compared with that of visual space. It was found that stereoscopic space was almost the same as visual space.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Helical CT evaluation of the perirenal space and its boundaries: a cadaveric study.

PURPOSE: To determine whether the perirenal spaces communicate across the midline and with the pelvic extraperitoneal spaces. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Helical CT was used to guide the sequential injection of 100-mL intravenous boluses of dilute contrast medium, up to 300 mL, into the perirenal space of eight embalmed cadavers (three male, five female; mean age at death, 82 years; range, 72-93 years), with four left-sided and four right-sided injections. All images were acquired after the final injection (300 mL total) to facilitate coronal and sagittal reconstruction of relevant images. All images were reviewed to assess the flow pathways of contrast medium from the perirenal space to other retroperitoneal spaces. RESULTS: In three cadavers that received left perirenal space injections and in two cadavers that received right perirenal space injections, communication was seen with the contralateral perirenal space through an area anterior to the aorta and inferior vena cava. In three cadavers that received right perirenal space injections, contrast material flowed from the right perirenal space to outline the bare area of the liver. Communication between the perirenal and pelvic extraperitoneal spaces was seen in all eight cadavers; contrast material extended into the pelvic extraperitoneal and presacral spaces. CONCLUSION: These findings show that the perirenal spaces communicate with each other across the midline and with the pelvic extraperitoneal spaces. Clinical implications are that perinephric collections can potentially flow into the pelvis or across the midline.

Aged↗

PubMed2006

Assessing dead space. A meaningful variable?

The recording of dead space will give information on how much of total ventilation that reaches both ventilated and perfused alveoli and thus allows gas exchange between alveoli and pulmonary blood. Realising that CO2 retention can be an effect not only of low total ventilation but also of increased dead space is one important information. Moreover, dead space will give insight into the matching of ventilation and perfusion. This is because dead space is affected by a number of factors: 1) tubings and valves that the subject has to rebreath through (apparatus dead space), 2/ Airways (anatomical dead space), 3/ Non-perfused but ventilated alveoli, e.g. pulmonary embolus (alveolar dead space), 4/ Excessive ventilation of alveoli in relation to their perfusion that can be seen in chronic obstructive lung disease (another form of alveolar dead space), and 5/ So called "shunt dead space" that is an erroneous description of right to left lung shunt that brings the higher CO2 concentration in venous blood to the arterial side thereby producing an arterial-to-end-tidal CO2 difference. The dead spaces 2-5 are called physiological dead space. The recording of dead spaces can be done according to the Riley three-compartment model or by analysis of the expired CO2 curve. However, both are subjected to potential errors that have to be considered to make a dead space recording meaningful. A correct measurement and calculation of the dead space will give valuable information on the ventilatory support of the critically ill patient and can also be a valuable diagnostic tool. It should therefore not be forgotten in the intensive care setting.

Carbon Dioxide↗

PubMed2004

Histologic characteristics of normal perivascular spaces along the optic tract: new pathogenetic mechanism for edema in tumors in the pituitary region.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Perivascular (PV) spaces are known to distend and cause edema along the optic tract (OT) in pituitary-region tumors. Interstitial fluid may be retained in PV spaces when tumors block their drainage outlets to subarachnoid spaces. However, these spaces and their outlets have not been anatomically elucidated. Our purpose was to evaluate how often large PV spaces are present along the OT and demonstrate their superficial communication points to adjacent subarachnoid spaces. METHODS: We examined serial histologic sections of 10 hemispheric blocks obtained from cadavers without cerebral abnormality. RESULTS: Large PV spaces, 0.5-1.5 mm in maximum height, were always present along the middle portion of the OT. Perforation points of the largest spaces were noted at the medial sulcus of the OT in seven hemispheres and through the OT in three. CONCLUSION: Large PV spaces are present along the middle portion of the OT. Their communication point to adjacent subarachnoid spaces was histologically demonstrated. The locations and variations of the outlet of large PV spaces explain the clinical features of edemas; these findings anatomically support the hypothesis that blockage of the outlets to subarachnoid spaces may play a role in distending the PV spaces and in causing edema in pituitary-region tumors. Only MR imaging has revealed this change; further pathologic investigations are awaited.

Aged↗

PubMed1994

Artificial gravity in space and in medical research.

The history of manned space flight has repeatedly documented the fact that prolonged sojourn in space causes physiological deconditioning. Physiological deterioration has raised a legitimate concern about man's ability to adequately perform in the course of long missions and even the possibility of leading to circumstances threatening survival. One of the possible countermeasures of physiological deconditioning, theoretically more complete than others presently used since it affects all bodily systems, is artificial gravity. Space stations and spacecrafts can be equipped with artificial gravity, but is artificial gravity necessary? The term "necessary" must be qualified because a meaningful answer to the question depends entirely on further defining the purpose of space travel. If man intends to stay only temporarily in space, then he must keep himself in good physical condition so as to be able to return to earth or to land on any other planetary surface without undue exposure to major physiological problems resulting from transition through variable gravitational fields. Such a situation makes artificial gravity highly desirable, although perhaps not absolutely necessary in the case of relative short exposure to microgravity, but certainly necessary in interplanetary flight and planetary landings. If the intent is to remain indefinitely in space, to colonize space, then artificial gravity may not be necessary, but in this case the consequences of long term effects of adaptation to weightlessness will have to be weighed against the biological evolutionary outcomes that are to be expected. At the moment, plans for establishing permanent colonies in space seem still remote. More likely, the initial phase of exploration of the uncharted solar system will take place through successive, scope limited, research ventures ending with return to earth. This will require man to be ready to operate in gravitational fields of variable intensity. Equipping spacecrafts or space stations with some means of artificial gravity in this initial phase is, therefore, necessary without question. In a strict sense artificial gravity is conceived as a means of replacing natural gravity in space by the centripetal acceleration generated by some sort of rotating device. Rotating devices create an inertial force which has effects on bodies similar to those caused by terrestrial gravity, but artificial gravity by a rotation device is not the same as terrestrial gravity, as we shall see. Present research in artificial gravity for space exploration is projected in two main directions: artificial gravity for whole space stations and artificial gravity produced by short arm centrifuges designed for human use in space.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

Nutritional biochemistry of space flight.

Humans have flown in space for more than 35 years. Since that time, Americans have walked on the moon, launched two space stations (Skylab and the International Space Station), docked during orbit with a Soviet Soyuz space capsule and the Russian Mir space station, flown the only reusable space vehicle, and visited a Russian space station for more then 6 months at a time. Nutritional intake has not been considered a high priority during relatively brief flights of the Space Shuttle and other programs (i.e., less than 21 days). However, as we embark on extended-duration (i.e., > 30 days up to several years) missions, nutrition becomes a critical issue. The impact of weightlessness on human physiology is profound. We are in the very early stages of understanding how space flight affects nutrient requirements and related issues such as absorption, metabolism, and excretion. Apart from the obvious role of providing energy and required nutrients, nutrition is also important in terms of enhancing psychosocial interactions among crews, and ameliorating some of the effects of microgravity on the body (i.e., acting as a "countermeasure"). The interrelationships among space flight, nutrition, and physiology suggest that a program of specified nutritional intake may be required to enhance mission safety and crew productivity. Defining which nutrients are essential for the space flight environment depends on a more complete understanding of how weightlessness affects physiology. Providing the required nutrients is also limited by the types of foods that can be provided by the food system on board the space craft, and the dietary habits of space crews.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed1993

Spatial and space-time correlations in systems of subpopulations with genetic drift and migration.

The geographic distribution of genetic variation is an important theoretical and experimental component of population genetics. Previous characterizations of genetic structure of populations have used measures of spatial variance and spatial correlations. Yet a full understanding of the causes and consequences of spatial structure requires complete characterization of the underlying space-time system. This paper examines important interactions between processes and spatial structure in systems of subpopulations with migration and drift, by analyzing correlations of gene frequencies over space and time. We develop methods for studying important features of the complete set of space-time correlations of gene frequencies for the first time in population genetics. These methods also provide a new alternative for studying the purely spatial correlations and the variance, for models with general spatial dimensionalities and migration patterns. These results are obtained by employing theorems, previously unused in population genetics, for space-time autoregressive (STAR) stochastic spatial time series. We include results on systems with subpopulation interactions that have time delay lags (temporal orders) greater than one. We use the space-time correlation structure to develop novel estimators for migration rates that are based on space-time data (samples collected over space and time) rather than on purely spatial data, for real systems. We examine the space-time and spatial correlations for some specific stepping stone migration models. One focus is on the effects of anisotropic migration rates. Partial space-time correlation coefficients can be used for identifying migration patterns. Using STAR models, the spatial, space-time, and partial space-time correlations together provide a framework with an unprecedented level of detail for characterizing, predicting and contrasting space-time theoretical distributions of gene frequencies, and for identifying features such as the pattern of migration and estimating migration rates in experimental studies of genetic variation over space and time.

Biometry↗

PubMed2001

Radiographic joint space in rheumatoid elbow joints. A 15-year prospective follow-up study in 74 patients.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate radiographically the humeroulnar (HU) and humeroradial (HR) joint spaces in patients with long-term rheumatoid arthritis (RA). METHODS: An inception cohort of 74 patients with RA were followed for 15 yr. At the end-point, 148 elbows were radiographed by a standard method. The HU and HR joint spaces were examined from the anteroposterior radiographs by measuring the shortest tangential distance in the middle of the joints. Destruction of the elbow joints, assessed with the Larsen method on a scale of 0-5, was studied in relation to the joint-space measurements. RESULTS: Mean (s.d.) HU joint space (n=148) in RA patients was 2.5 (1.1) mm, range 0-4 mm [2.9 (0.8) mm in men and 2.4 (1.1) mm in women]. Mean (s.d.) HR joint space (n=140) was 2.3 (0.9) mm, range 0-4 mm [2.5 (0.8) mm in men and 2.3 (1.0) mm in women]. HU and HR spaces of the affected joints (Larsen grades 2-5) [1.9 (s.d. 1.1) and 1.8 (0.9) mm respectively] were notably narrower than those of the unaffected (Larsen grades 0-1) joints [3.1 (0.7) and 2.9 (0.6) mm]. All the joints graded as Larsen 4 or 5 (n=13) had a value of 0 mm for both joint spaces. Both the HU and the HR joint-space narrowing was associated with increasing destruction (Larsen grading) of the joint. [r= -0.69 (95% CI -0.77 to -0.60) and r= -0.70 (-0.78 to -0.60)]. The monotonic narrowing was significantly increasing from unaffected (Larsen 0, 1), slightly (2), moderately (3) to severely (4, 5) affected joints (P<0.001). A step in this process occurred between Larsen grades 3 and 4, when the mean joint space diminished from 1.4 and 1.5 respectively to 0 mm. CONCLUSIONS: Joint-space narrowing is a frequent consequence of rheumatoid affection of the elbow joint. HR joint space decreases together with HU joint space; however, the HR joint space is already slightly narrower at the start. The narrowing is a rather late phenomenon, occurring only after erosive destruction. This should be borne in mind when using the Larsen method to evaluate changes in the elbow joint.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2003

The pattern of ocular dominance columns in cat primary visual cortex: intra- and interindividual variability of column spacing and its dependence on genetic background.

We present a comprehensive analysis of the intrinsic variability of the periodicity of ocular dominance columns in cat primary visual cortex (area 17) and its relationship to genetic background and visual experience. We characterized the intra-areal and interindividual variability of column spacing in a large set (n = 49) of ocular dominance patterns adapting a recently developed technique for the two-dimensional analysis of orientation column patterns. Patterns were obtained from three different cat colonies (termed F, M and D), the cats having either normal visual experience or experimentally induced strabismus. Two-dimensional maps of local column spacing were calculated for every pattern. In individual cortices, local column spacings varied by > 50% with the majority of column spacings ranging between 0.6 and 1.5 mm in different animals. In animals from colonies F and M (n = 29), the mean column spacing ranged between 1.03 and 1.27 mm and exhibited no significant differences, either between the two breeds or between strabismic and normal animals. The mean spacing was moderately clustered in the left and right brain hemisphere of individual animals but not in littermates. In animals from colony D (n = 2), average column spacing ranged between 0.73 and 0.95 mm, and was thus significantly different from the distribution of spacings in animals from breeds F and M, suggesting an influence of genetic factors on the layout of ocular dominance columns. Local column spacing exhibited a considerable systematic intra-areal variation, with largest spacings along the representation of the horizontal meridian and smallest spacings along the peripheral representation of the vertical meridian. The total variability of ocular dominance column spacing comprised 24% systematic intra-areal variation, 18% interindividual differences of mean column spacing and 58% nonsystematic intra-areal variability.

Animals↗

PubMed1991

Radiologic evaluation of the normal and diseased posterior cervical space.

The posterior cervical space seen on cross-sectional imaging of the neck constitutes most of the posterior triangle seen on clinical examination. Although triangular anatomy relates best to the surface perspective of the clinician, a spatial approach to anatomy works better for the radiologist viewing axial images. The posterior cervical space is defined as the area in the posterolateral portion of the neck from the skull base to the clavicles deep to the sternomastoid and trapezius muscles but superficial to the prevertebral space. Its principal contents are fat, the spinal accessory nerve, and lymph nodes. We analyzed CT and MR images and clinical records of 63 patients known or suspected to have disease of the posterior cervical space to determine the imaging features that mark a lesion as originating in the posterior cervical space and the spectrum of diseases that arise there. Of the 63 patients in the study, four had clinical pseudomasses, nine had congenital lesions, 10 had inflammatory disease, six had benign tumors, and 34 had malignant tumors. A typical mass lesion of the posterior cervical space was centered within the fat of the space, between the deep and superficial layers of the deep cervical fascia. Characteristic displacements caused by a mass in the posterior cervical space included anteromedial displacement of the carotid space and posteromedial displacement of the prevertebral space. Our study shows that the differential diagnosis of lesions of the posterior cervical space reflects the normal contents of the space, and that diagnosis can thereby be predicted from knowledge of the normal anatomy and contents of the space.

Carcinoma, Squamous Cell↗

PubMed1991

[Measurement of parapharyngeal space using CT images].

Parapharyngeal space can be defined as a potential space surrounded by deglutitional and masticator muscles and their covering, superficial and middle layer of deep cervical fascia. It is easily recognized in images provided by modern scanning devices, such as CT and MRI. Parapharyngeal space has traditionally been divided by styloid process and fascia of tensor veli palatini muscle (nasopharyngeal level) or fascia of stylopharyngeus muscle (oropharyngeal level) into two compartments, prestyloid and postsyloid spaces. The latter is often called as carotid space. Prestyloid portion exclusively contains fat tissue, which yields hypoabsorption area in CT films and high density area in MRI. In most of papers in radiological journals, the term of parapharyngeal space is regarded as its prestyloid portion which is clearly identified. Axial CT images of 144 patients without any naso- or oropharyngeal lesions were analyzed. Two reference levels of nasopharynx were adopted for the study. The upper level passes through the plane of fossa of Rosenmuller, and the lower reference level transects soft palate. The following parameters of the space were measured; Length and width of the whole space, length and width of prestyloid fatty space, and furthermore, width of pre- and poststyloid space, that were divided by a imaginary line parallel to the axis of the whole space (the upper level); Length and width of the whole space, length of base and height of a triangle of the prestyloid part (the lower level). While parapharyngeal space was symmetrical in the upper level, the rate of asymmetry amounted to a fourth in the lower level.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adolescent↗

PubMed1976

A new concept of the anatomy of the anal sphincter mechanism and the physiology of defecation. IV. Anatomy of the perianal spaces.

A study of the perianal spaces was performed in 22 cadaveric specimens using dissection and microscopic examination. Six spaces could be recognized: subcutaneous, central, intersphincteric, ischiorectal, pelvirectal, and submucous. A mention of the central and intersphincteric spaces could not be traced in the literature. The anatomic relations and communications of the perianal spaces are discussed. The central space occupies the area between the longitudinal muscle termination and the base loop of the external anal sphincter. It is the headquarters of all of the perianal spaces as it communicates with all of them. The intersphincteric spaces lie along the longitudinal anal muscle. They constitute the main tracks for extension of pus along the anal canal. The ischiorectal space communicates directly with main tracks for extension of pus along the anal canal. The ischiorectal space communicates directly with the subcutaneous space without the intervention of a septum. The pelvirectal space communicates with the perianal skin through the intersphincteric spaces. The author failed to demonstrate the musculus submucous space; in its place a collagenous internal anal septum could be identified. Furthermore, no trace for the suspensory ligament of Parks was detected; the lower anal lining was found to be pulled by the medial central septum derived from the central tendon.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1991

On the question of a subdural space.

The structure of the meninges, with particular attention to the architecture of the inner portions of the dura mater and the arachnoid mater, has been reviewed in reference to the probable existence of a "subdural" space. The dura is composed of fibroblasts and large amounts of extracellular collagen. The innermost part of the dura is formed by the dural border cell layer. This layer is characterized by flattened cells with sinuous processes, extracellular spaces containing an amorphous material, and the presence of junctions between its cells. The dural border cell layer is continuous with the inner (meningeal) portions of the dura and may be attached to the underlying arachnoid by an occasional cell junction. The arachnoid consists of an outer part, the arachnoid barrier cell layer, and an inner portion, the arachnoid trabeculae which bridge the subarachnoid space. Arachnoid barrier cells are electron-lucent, closely apposed to each other, and joined by many cell junctions; in this layer there is little extracellular space and essentially no intercellular material. Arachnoid trabecular cells cross the subarachnoid space in a random manner, have extracellular collagen associated with their flattened processes, and form structures of variable shapes and sizes. There is no evidence of an intervening space between the arachnoid barrier cell layer and the dural border cell layer that would correlate with what has been called the subdural space. When a tissue space is created in this general area of the meninges it is the result of tissue damage and represents, in most instances, a cleaving open of the dural border cell layer. In this situation, extracellular spaces in the dural border cell layer are enlarged, cell junctions are separated, and it is probable that cell membranes are damaged. A survey of reports describing the morphology of the inner and outer capsule of so-called subdural hematomas in humans reveals that dural border cells are found in both parts of the capsule. Also, experimental infusion of blood into this portion of the meninges in animals frequently dissects open the dural border cell layer. These data support the view that what has been called a subdural hematoma is most frequently a lesion found within the layer formed by dural border cells. It is suggested that the so-called subdural space is not a "potential" space since the creation of a cleft in this area of the meninges is the result of tissue damage. In this respect it shares no similarities with legitimate potential spaces (i.e., serous cavities) found at other locations in the body.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Arachnoid↗

PubMed1982

Comparison of extracellular space in the mature and aging rat brain using a new technique.

A new technique for measuring extracellular space in the rat brain has been developed. It involves opening the blood-brain barrier with a bolus of hyperosmotic sucrose followed by a high-pressure perfusion of the cerebral vasculature with an isotonic solution containing an impermeant radioactive tracer, [3H]sucrose. After allowing the concentration of tracer in the brain to reach a plateau, the amount of radioactivity/mg of brain tissue is expressed as a percentage of the amount of radioactivity/mg of perfusate to obtain a value for extracellular space. The addition of glutaraldehyde to the perfusate results in the brain being fixed simultaneously for electron microscopy. Reproducible estimates of extracellular space were obtained similar to those obtained by other methods (e.g. Levin et al. 1970). As it is impossible to be sure of the validity of the absolute value of extracellular space obtained by any method using perfused solutions we have used our method for comparative purposes. Extracellular space was measured in mature (control) and ageing rats to test the claim that the volume of space in the cerebral cortex is substantially reduced with ageing (Bondareff and Narotsky 1972). We found a consistent tendency for the extracellular space to increase with age in the 6 regions of brain examined. This was not statistically significant except in the group of ageing rats on a food-restricted diet. Therefore, these results do not support a generalisation that the extracellular space decreases in the ageing brain. In both control and ageing rats, extracellular space was shown to be unevenly distributed in the brain, the largest space being present in the cerebellum, olfactory bulb, inferior and superior colliculi and the least space in the white matter. These are the first measurements of extracellular space in which assessment is possible by both electron microscopy and by the measurement of a chemical tracer.

Aging↗

PubMedDate not supplied

The future of space medicine.

In November 2000, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and its partners in the International Space Station (ISS) ushered in a new era of space flight: permanent human presence in low-Earth orbit. As the culmination of the last four decades of human space flight activities. the ISS focuses our attention on what we have learned to date. and what still must be learned before we can embark on future exploration endeavors. Space medicine has been a primary part of our past success in human space flight, and will continue to play a critical role in future ventures. To prepare for the day when crews may leave low-Earth orbit for long-duration exploratory missions, space medicine practitioners must develop a thorough understanding of the effects of microgravity on the human body, as well as ways to limit or prevent them. In order to gain a complete understanding and create the tools and technologies needed to enable successful exploration. space medicine will become even more of a highly collaborative discipline. Future missions will require the partnership of physicians, biomedical scientists, engineers, and mission planners. This paper will examine the future of space medicine as it relates to human space exploration: what is necessary to keep a crew alive in space, how we do it today, how we will accomplish this in the future, and how the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) plans to achieve future goals.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed2002

Space bioreactors and their applications.

Space biology is a young and rapidly developing discipline comprising basic research and biotechnology. With the prospect of longer space missions and the construction of the International Space Station several aspects of biotechnology will play a prominent role in space. In fact, biotechnological processes allowing the recycling of vital elements, such as oxygen or water, and the in-flight production of food becomes essential when considering the financial and logistic standpoint. Every kilogram which, having been recycled or produced in space, does not have to be uploaded will drastically reduce the cost of space missions. In addition, the scientific community is offered a better opportunity to investigate long-term biotechnological processes performing experiments with a duration ranging from weeks to months. Therefore, there is an increasing demand for sophisticated instrumentation to satisfy the requirements of future projects in space biology. The carryover of knowledge from conventional bioreactor technology to miniature space bioreactors for a monitored and controlled cell culturing is one of the key elements for this new dimension in space life science. The first space bioreactors were developed and flown at the end of the last century. It has been demonstrated that cells of different types, from bacteria to mammalian cells, can be successfully grown in this type of culture vessel. This chapter presents different generations of bioreactors developed so far, their performances in space and their potential for the future, as well as the activities of the European Space Agency (ESA) in this domain. A dedicated chapter by Lisa Freed on the rotating wall vessel reactor and the latest NASA bioreactor research is also part of this volume.

Bioreactors↗

PubMed2003

Space and place in the construction and performance of gendered nursing identities.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: This paper draws on recent research conducted in two contrasting NHS hospitals: one a large District General, the other a small Community hospital; to look at hospitals as organizational spaces. This includes both the physical environment as well as how these spaces are inhabited and used. This paper aims to explore the ways in which hospital spaces impact on the working lives of nurses. METHODS: The research employed two main methods. Two phases of round the clock non-participant observation were carried out within each hospital, one at the beginning of the research period and one at the end. This generated thick description of the diversity of spaces, as well as individuals' use of space. In addition, more than 50 in-depth unstructured interviews were conducted with both nurses and doctors. FINDINGS: Three aspects of the relationship between nurse and hospital spaces are considered. First, the degree of access that nurses have to the different hospital spaces is limited, and many are confined to the wards in which they work. The high proportion of female nurses working on wards means that there are marked gender differences in access to hospital spaces. There are also marked professional differences when nurses are compared to doctors who have much greater freedom to roam and there are differences in the amount of private space allocated to nurses and doctors. Second, styles of bodily movement in space are also highly differentiated by profession and gender. Third, different spaces have very different meanings attached to them, and this has a strong impact on styles of performance and identity. Attention to space thus offers original insights to nurses working conditions as well as to inter-professional relations.

Ergonomics↗