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PubMed1992

Structural properties of visual images constructed from poorly or well-structured verbal descriptions.

Previous research has found a linear relation between distance and scanning times for spatial configurations when the spatial configurations were learned perceptually and when they were constructed from well-structured verbal descriptions. The current research replicated the time-distance relation when the images were constructed from repetitions of well-structured descriptions but not when the images were generated from three repetitions of a description that presented information in a random order. Six exposures to the randomly ordered information yielded the expected time-distance relation in image scanning. We posited that additional exposure to the poorly structured information allowed the image to develop the structural coherence and resolution needed to support consistent scanning. Thus, the structure of descriptions can affect the intrinsic structure of images of described objects and hence the mental operations performed subsequently on these images. Another experiment indicated that image coherence and resolution improves even after the verbal description is accurately recalled.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

The representation and integration in memory of spatial and nonspatial information.

A series of experiments investigated whether people could integrate nonspatial information about an object with their knowledge of the object's location in space. In Experiments 1 and 3, subjects learned the locations of cities on a fictitious road map; in Experiments 2, 4, and 5, subjects were already familiar with the locations of buildings on a campus. The subjects then learned facts about the cities on the maps or the buildings on the campus. The question of interest was whether or not these nonspatial facts would be integrated in memory with the spatial knowledge. After learning the facts, subjects were given a location-judgment test in which they had to decide whether an object was in one region of the space or another. Knowledge integration was assessed by comparing levels of performance in two conditions: (a) when a city or a building name was primed by a fact about a neighboring city or building, and (b) when a city or a building name was primed by a fact about a distant city or building. Results showed that responses in Condition a were faster or more accurate, or both faster and more accurate, than responses in Condition b. These results indicate that the spatial and nonspatial information were encoded in a common memory representation.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Distortions and fluctuations in topographic memory.

Two experiments dealing with the learning of a space by map or by navigation approached the questions of equivalency of the cognitive processes involved in spatial information and of response fluctuation. In the first experiment, 11 subjects were asked to situate, six times, 18 locations on a blank map. In the second experiment, the subjects were first given 3 min to learn a map with 12 locations marked, and then asked to reproduce it. The task was repeated six times, using three different maps. This gave us several trials per subject, so that distortion could be distinguished from response fluctuation. In Experiment 1, the range of values was the same for response inaccuracy and response fluctuation; in Experiment 2, the range was greater for response inaccuracy than for response fluctuation. The results showed that space learning by navigation and space learning by map involve different cognitive processes.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

The effect of the Müller-Lyer illusion on map reading.

One important reason for studying visual illusions is that they can influence real-world perception as people interact with human-made displays. Three experiments examined how the Müller-Lyer illusion affects distance judgments and decision-making in the complex graphical context of a map by having subjects estimate the lengths of road segment lines framed by inward-going or outward-going wings in actual maps, in control displays that had the map context removed, and in simulated maps. The experiments showed that (1) outward-going wings led to higher distance estimates than did inward-going wings to the same extent both with and without the map context, (2) decisions based on distances determined from maps were affected by Müller-Lyer elements in the maps, and (3) map readers' measurement behavior influenced the effect of the Müller-Lyer elements in maps. The discussion focuses on how certain display manipulations and task manipulations affect the Müller-Lyer illusion. In addition, the discussion addresses the instances in which using a map might be affected by misestimation due to Müller-Lyer elements.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Spatial knowledge acquisition from maps and from navigation in real and virtual environments.

In this study, the nature of the spatial representations of an environment acquired from maps, navigation, and virtual environments (VEs) was assessed. Participants first learned the layout of a simple desktop VE and then were tested in that environment. Then, participants learned two floors of a complex building in one of three learning conditions: from a map, from direct experience, or by traversing through a virtual rendition of the building. VE learners showed the poorest learning of the complex environment overall, and the results suggest that VE learners are particularly susceptible to disorientation after rotation. However, all the conditions showed similar levels of performance in learning the layout of landmarks on a single floor. Consistent with previous research, an alignment effect was present for map learners, suggesting that they had formed an orientation-specific representation of the environment. VE learners also showed a preferred orientation, as defined by their initial orientation when learning the environment. Learning the initial simple VE was highly predictive of learning a real environment, suggesting that similar cognitive mechanisms are involved in the two learning situations.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

The initial segment strategy: a heuristic for route selection.

People often choose one route when traveling from point A to point B and a different route when traveling from point B to point A. To explain these route asymmetries, we propose that people rely on a heuristic (the initial segment strategy, or ISS) during route planning. This heuristic involves basing decisions disproportionately on the straightness of the initial segments of the routes. Asymmetries arise because the characteristics that favor selection of a particular route in one direction will usually differ from those that favor selection when traveling in the opposite direction. Results from five experiments supported these claims. In the first three experiments, we found that subjects' decisions were asymmetric and involved a preference for initially straight routes. In Experiment 4, we confirmed that the ISS is a heuristic by demonstrating that people rely on it more when under time pressure. However, people can choose the optimal route when instructed to do so. In Experiment 5, we generalized the findings by having subjects select routes on maps of college campuses. Taken together, the results indicate that the ISS can account for asymmetries in route choices on both real and artificial maps.

Decision Making↗
PubMed2000

[Determinants of sketch-map orientation: an examination into the adoption of egocentric and conventional systems of reference to sketch-map drawing].

This study examined the determinants of adults' sketch-map orientation in terms of adoption of Egocentric and Conventional Systems of Reference (ESR and CSR) proposed by Sholl and Egeth (1980). If an ESR adoption in sketch-map drawing depends on a tuning activity of 'orienting schemata' (Sholl, 1987), subjects are expected to comprehend their own body direction accurately at the current position. To test this hypothesis, subjects were asked to judge the direction to the library entrance relative to their body direction at the current position. Subjects were asked to judge the direction to the north, to confirm that those who adopted CSR in sketch-map drawing regard the top of the sketch-map as north. In addition, whether the frequency of ESR adoption increases by telling subjects to draw the current position first, or not was examined. Results indicated a significant increase in ESR adoption. Subjects who adopted ESR performed well in judging the direction to the library entrance. On the other hand, subjects who adopted CSR poorly performed in judging the direction to the north.

Adult↗
PubMed1983

Uses of computer-generated maps in occupational hazard and mortality surveillance.

The purpose of the present paper was to describe five ways in which computer-generated maps for 3,073 United States political subdivisions (counties) are being used as a part of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health surveillance system. Four maps show the approximate spatial location of potential workplace hazards in terms of (i) worksites, (ii) estimates of the proportion of workers at risk for US counties, and (iv) counties within a selected state. A fifth map shows age-standardized county-level mortality for a cause of death associated with an occupational risk. These five types of maps represent first efforts to present and disseminate information in an effective format and to generate occupational health surveillance leads that may warrant further research.

Aged↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Cartography of epidemiologic data. The principal methods of making continuous data discrete and their importance in cartographic representation].

The cartographic representation of continuous quantitative data is often required in studies of the spatial distribution of health indicators. It imposes a succession of choices which directly affect the result obtained. The conversion of continuous data to discrete data is one of the most important steps in the development of epidemiological maps. This article presents the methods currently used to make data discrete, discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each method and assesses their appropriateness for various situations. As an example, and for comparison purposes, we mapped the same series of statistics (relative rates of avoidable male deaths, "associated with the health care system", for "employment zones" in France from 1988 to 1992), using each of the methods discussed.

Algorithms↗