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PubMed2006

Identification of phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase gene expression in stellate ganglia and its modulation by stress.

Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT, EC 2.1.1.28) is the terminal enzyme of the catecholaminergic pathway converting noradrenaline to adrenaline. Although preferentially localized in adrenal medulla, evidence exists that PNMT activity and gene expression are also present in the rat heart, kidney, spleen, lung, skeletal muscle, thymus, retina and different parts of the brain. However, data concerning PNMT gene expression in sympathetic ganglia are still missing. In this study, our effort was focused on identification of PNMT mRNA and/or protein in stellate ganglia and, if present, testing the effect of stress on PNMT mRNA and protein levels in this type of ganglia. We identified both PNMT mRNA and protein in stellate ganglia of rats and mice, although in much smaller amounts compared with adrenal medulla. PNMT gene expression and protein levels were also increased after repeated stress exposure in stellate ganglia of rats and wild-type mice. Similarly to adrenal medulla, the immobilization-induced increase was probably regulated by glucocorticoids, as determined indirectly using corticotropin-releasing hormone knockout mice, where immobilization-induced increase of PNMT mRNA was suppressed. Thus, glucocorticoids might play an important role in regulation of PNMT gene expression in stellate ganglia under stress conditions.

Adrenal Medulla↗
PubMed1981

Detection of an immediate early herpes simplex virus type 1 polypeptide in trigeminal ganglia from latently infected animals.

In this study, trigeminal sensory ganglia from animals with acute herpes simplex virus, type 1 (HSV-1) infection were compared to those with a latent infection for the expression of HSV-specific antigens. By the indirect immunofluorescence assay, antisera to an immediate early polypeptide of molecular weight 175,000, designated VP175 or ICP4, and a hyperimmune antiserum to HSV-1 were used to determine whether early viral polypeptides were being expressed in neurons during the latent stage of infection. All 17 ganglia from animals with acute infection (sacrificed 3 to 12 days postinfection) exhibited positive staining when treated either with anti-HSV-1 or with anti-VP175. Forty of 42 ganglia from animals sacrificed during the latent stage of infection (22 to 200 days postinfection) exhibited immunofluorescent staining when treated with anti-VP175. The staining appeared to be similar to that observed in ganglia from acutely infected animals stained with anti-VP175, except that the number and distribution of stained cells were markedly reduced. No immunofluorescence was observed in ganglia from noninfected control animals when stained with anti-VP175 or anti-HSV-1, or when ganglia from latently infected animals were stained with anti-HSV-1 or preimmune serum.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Prevalence and abundance of latently transcribed varicella-zoster virus genes in human ganglia.

In human ganglia latently infected with varicella-zoster virus (VZV), sequence analysis has revealed that five viral genes (VZV genes 21, 29, 62, 63, and 66) are transcribed. However, their comparative prevalence and abundance are unknown. Here, using real-time PCR, we analyzed 28 trigeminal ganglia from 14 humans for RNA corresponding to the five virus genes known to be transcribed in latently infected human ganglia. The most prevalent transcript found was VZV gene 63 (78%), followed by gene 66 (43%), gene 62 (36%), and gene 29 (21%). No gene 21 transcripts were detected in any of the 28 ganglia. VZV gene 63 RNA was also the most abundant (3,710 +/- 6,895 copies per 1 microg of mRNA) transcript detected in latently infected human ganglia, followed by VZV gene 29 (491 +/- 594), VZV gene 66 (117 +/- 85), and VZV gene 62 (64 +/- 38). Thus, the repeated detection and high abundance of VZV gene 63 transcripts in latently infected ganglia suggests that VZV gene 63 may be more important for the maintenance of virus latency than the less abundantly transcribed and randomly detected VZV genes 21, 29, 62, and 66.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

A major portion of the latent pseudorabies virus genome is transcribed in trigeminal ganglia of pigs.

Pseudorabies virus (PRV) is a porcine herpesvirus that establishes latent infections in trigeminal ganglia. To determine whether PRV expresses any transcripts that could play a role in latency, the trigeminal ganglia of 14 pigs previously inoculated through the nose and latently infected with PRV(Ka) were assayed by in situ nucleic acid hybridization for the presence of PRV-specific RNA. Hybridizations employing probes encompassing the entire viral genome revealed that an area extending from 0.64 to 0.82 map units was transcriptionally active. The DNA probe that most consistently detected transcripts was BamHI-8, a fragment which contains the gene for the immediate-early protein. With this probe, ganglia from 10 (71%) of 14 pigs scored positive for PRV RNA, although only 1 (8%) of 12 of the ganglia from the opposite side reactivated virus after explanation and culture of latently infected trigeminal ganglia. The RNA was transcribed from the strand opposite to that coding for the immediate-early protein; the signal was neuronally localized, with dense nuclear accumulation accompanied by variable numbers of grains over the cytoplasm. Northern RNA blot analysis showed that a discrete set of poly(A)- PRV transcripts were present in latently infected trigeminal ganglia. Additional in situ nucleic acid hybridization analysis revealed that the 3' limit of the transcriptionally active area was located in a 1.2-kilobase fragment upstream and adjacent to the 5' end of the immediate-early protein RNA, whereas the 5' limit was as much as 4.9 kilobases downstream from the 3' end of this RNA. PRV therefore expresses latent-phase transcripts that, although similar in many respects to latent-phase transcripts reported for other herpesviruses, have some unique properties.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

The polyserine tract of herpes simplex virus ICP4 is required for normal viral gene expression and growth in murine trigeminal ganglia.

ICP4 of herpes simplex virus (HSV) is essential for productive infection due to its central role in the regulation of HSV transcription. This study identified a region of ICP4 that is not required for viral growth in culture or at the periphery of experimentally inoculated mice but is critical for productive growth in the trigeminal ganglia. This region of ICP4 encompasses amino acids 184 to 198 and contains 13 nearly contiguous serine residues that are highly conserved among the alphaherpesviruses. A mutant in which this region is deleted (DeltaSER) was able to grow on the corneas of mice and be transported back to the trigeminal ganglia. DeltaSER did not grow in the trigeminal ganglia but did express low levels of several immediate-early (ICP4 and ICP27) and early (thymidine kinase [tk] and UL42) genes. It expressed very low levels of the late gC gene and did not appear to replicate DNA. This pattern of gene expression was similar to that observed for a tk mutant, dlsptk. Both DeltaSER and dlsptk expressed higher levels of the latency-associated transcript (LAT) per genome earlier in infected ganglia than did the wild-type virus, KOS. However, infected ganglia from all three viruses accumulated the same level of LAT per genome at 30 days postinfection (during latency). The data suggest that the polyserine tract of ICP4 provides an activity that is required for lytic infection in ganglia to progress to viral DNA synthesis and full lytic gene expression. In the absence of this activity, higher levels of LAT per genome accumulate earlier in infection than with wild-type virus.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1982

Factors affecting recovery of latent herpes simplex virus from human trigeminal ganglia.

The rate of recovery of herpes simplex virus (HSV) from human trigeminal ganglia explant monolayers is affected by two factors: (1) time elapsed from the death of an individual to the establishment of in vitro culture of ganglia and (2) surface area onto which ganglia are explanted. Spontaneous reactivation of HSV from human trigeminal ganglia can be maximized when ganglia are obtained within 12 h of death and explanted into surface area of 250 cm2. Viruses isolated by explantation of human trigeminal ganglia were found to be uniformly HSV type 1 by restriction enzyme analysis.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Characterization of two myotrophic neuropeptides in the FMRFamide family from the segmental ganglia of the moth Manduca sexta: candidate neurohormones and neuromodulators

We have characterized two new members of the FMRFamide family of neuropeptides from the segmental ganglia of the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta. Levels of peptides in ganglia used for purification were enhanced by manipulating their exposure to the steroid molting hormones. Explants of ganglia were cultured in the low-level ecdysteroid environment of diapausing pupae shown previously to evoke accumulation of FMRFamide-like immunoreactivity (FLI). Sufficient material for sequencing was obtained from 180 explanted ganglia. Extracts of ganglia were fractionated using two reverse-phase liquid chromatography procedures, and the immunoreactive fractions were subjected to sequence analysis using electrospray mass spectrometry. The sequences of the two peptides were determined to be GNSFLRFamide and DPSFLRFamide. These peptides have been named MasFLRFamide II and MasFLRFamide III, respectively; the previously characterized M. sexta FLRFamide (pEDVVHSFLRFamide) has been renamed MasFLRFamide I. The three peptides show distinctive tissue and developmental distributions as determined from fractionated extracts of larval and adult central nervous system structures and neurohemal organs. In the retrocerebral corpora cardiaca/corpora allata, MasFLRFamide I was the predominant form, while in the segmental ganglia MasFLRFamides II and III predominated. Higher levels of MasFLRFamide I and II were found in the adult, whereas there was little apparent change in the level of MasFLRFamide III upon metamorphosis. Determinations of peptide levels in fractionated hemolymph of newly emerged moths revealed that levels of MasFLRFamide I and III could exceed 10 nmol l-1. The actions of the three peptides were tested on the moth ileum. MasFLRFamides II and III were found to be stimulatory. At 1 nmol l-1, these peptides induced robust increases in the rate of rhythmic longitudinal and peristaltic waves of contractions. In contrast, MasFLRFamide I was ineffective even at 20 nmol l-1. Thus, while all three peptides have the characteristics of neurohormones in M. sexta, the physiological findings show that the heptapeptide FLRFamides have properties distinct from those of the decapeptide.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1993

Latent herpes simplex virus type 1 in human vestibular ganglia.

Viral infection has been considered to be a possible pathogenesis of vestibular neuronitis, and reactivation of the herpes simplex virus (HSV) is one of the most likely causes. However, it remains unknown whether the human vestibular ganglia contain latent HSV. We examined 26 vestibular ganglia from autopsied adults in search of HSV type 1 (HSV-1). To detect HSV-1, we used polymerase chain reaction (PCR), in situ hybridization and immunohistochemical staining. HSV DNA was detected in 6 of 10 vestibular ganglia using the PCR method. However, the latency-associated transcript (LAT) of HSV-1 was negative in all of the 16 vestibular ganglia examined. No HSV antigen was detected in any of the ganglia. These results indicate that HSV-1 is latently infected in the human vestibular ganglia, and that LAT is transcribed weakly or not at all.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Vesicourethral sphincter dysfunction in ncx deficient mice with an increased neuronal cell number in vesical ganglia.

PURPOSE: Ncx/Hox11L.1 knockout mice have a megacolon with an increased number of neuronal cells in the enteric ganglia. Since Ncx/Hox11L.1 is expressed in neuronal cells in the vesical ganglia, we examined lower urinary tract function and the number of neuronal cells in the vesical ganglia in Ncx/Hox11L.1 knockout mice. METHODS: Female knockout and control mice were investigated in regard to voiding frequency, and cystometry and histological studies were done. The number of neuronal cells in the vesical ganglia was observed by staining with nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate diaphorase and cuprolinic blue. RESULTS: In knockout mice voiding frequency was 2-fold and bladder capacity was less than in controls. Although bladder structure was histologically similar in knockout mice and controls, cystometry showed that threshold and remaining pressure was less in knockout mice. Neuronal cells positive for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate diaphorase or cuprolinic blue were more numerous in the vesical ganglia of knockout mice than controls. The intraperitoneal injection of a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor increased threshold and remaining pressure on cystometry in knockout mice to the control level. CONCLUSIONS: The increased number of neuronal cells in the vesical ganglia induces vesicourethral sphincter muscle dysfunction in knockout mice. Since administering a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor somewhat overcomes the dysfunction, the amount of nitric oxide in vesical nerve cells is important for controlling vesicourethral sphincter muscle function.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Interaction between parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves in prevertebral ganglia: morphological evidence for vagal efferent innervation of ganglion cells in the rat.

Vagal efferent preganglionic neurons were anterogradely labeled by injecting either DiI or DiA, fluorescent lipophilic carbocyanine dyes, into the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus of the rat. All neurons of the peripheral nervous system (outside the blood-brain barrier) were then fluorescently counterstained in vivo by injecting Fluorogold (Fluorochrome, Inc., Englewood, CO) intraperitoneally. The upper abdominal prevertebral ganglia, including the numerous microganglia associated with the periarterial plexuses of the celiac and superior mesenteric arteries, were identified and dissected in formalin-fixed tissue under ultraviolet light and stereomicroscopic guidance. In 14 of 15 animals analyzed (93%), labeled vagal efferent fibers were found to penetrate into both the left and right celiac ganglia and the superior mesenteric ganglion, as well as into some of the associated microganglia. These projections formed varicose terminal-like structures, highly suggestive of synaptic contacts surrounding individual ganglion cells. In about half the animals, such vagal innervation was also seen in the left and right suprarenal ganglia. The specificity of vagal efferent labeling was confirmed by control experiments, which included injections in vagotomized animals and direct selective labeling of vagal afferents from the nodose ganglia. It is concluded that vagal efferent preganglionics innervate principal ganglion cells of prevertebral ganglia. These vagal contacts may either directly modulate the postganglionic outflow or else gate some or all of the potential modulatory inputs to these postganglionic neurons, thus allowing the vagal system to exert a more selective influence on sympathetic outflow. Finally, the use of laser scanning confocal microscopy and the in toto Fluorogold staining method for investigations of the peripheral nervous system are discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1982

Temporal patterns of neurogenesis in avian cranial sensory and autonomic ganglia.

Avian cranial sensory ganglia are embryonically derived from neural crest and epidermal placodes. Cells from these two populations interact with each other and with other components of their environment to influence the complex structural and functional organization of the ganglia. To help understand these processes, the times of terminal mitosis of cranial sensory neuroblasts were established. Birthdate patterns within each ganglion are described with particular attention given to the structural organization of the VII-VIII ganglionic complex. Birthdate information on cranial autonomic ganglia is also included. Chick embryos ranging in age from 1 to 8 days of incubation were treated with 3H-thymidine and sacrificed on embryonic day 8, 10, or 18. Large, placode-derived neurons are generated between days 2 and 5 of incubation. Embryonically smaller, neural crest-derived cells leave the proliferative pool between days 4 and 7. Neurons of the acoustic ganglion cease their mitotic activity in an apical to basal fashion and are the only placodal neurons to form later than day 5. Of the cranial autonomic ganglia, the period of neuron production is best defined for the ciliary ganglion, where it is 2.5-5.5 days of incubation. Most later-dividing neuroblasts in the ciliary ganglion belong to the choroid cell population. Temporal patterns of neurogenesis are discussed in relationship to other aspects of sensory gangliogenesis including embryonic origin of neurons, condensation of ganglionic anlagen, cell degeneration, and cytological characteristics of mature ganglia.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

The functional anatomy of basal ganglia disorders.

Basal ganglia disorders are a heterogeneous group of clinical syndromes with a common anatomic locus within the basal ganglia. To account for the variety of clinical manifestations associated with insults to various parts of the basal ganglia we propose a model in which specific types of basal ganglia disorders are associated with changes in the function of subpopulations of striatal projection neurons. This model is based on a synthesis of experimental animal and post-mortem human anatomic and neurochemical data. Hyperkinetic disorders, which are characterized by an excess of abnormal movements, are postulated to result from the selective impairment of striatal neurons projecting to the lateral globus pallidus. Hypokinetic disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, are hypothesized to result from a complex series of changes in the activity of striatal projection neuron subpopulations resulting in an increase in basal ganglia output. This model suggests that the activity of subpopulations of striatal projection neurons is differentially regulated by striatal afferents and that different striatal projection neuron subpopulations may mediate different aspects of motor control.

Basal Ganglia↗
PubMed1993

Sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia express non-NMDA type glutamate receptors: distinct receptor subunit composition in the principle and SIF cells.

The presence of non-NMDA glutamate receptors in the rat sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia was examined by immunocytochemistry using specific antibodies against AMPA-type excitatory amino acid receptor subunits (GluR1-4). Three kinds of antibodies specific to the GluR1, GluR2 and 3, and GluR4 subunits were used. The superior cervical ganglion and pterygopalatine ganglion were examined as representatives of sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia. In the superior cervical ganglion, GluR1- and GluR2/3-like immunoreactivity was observed in most principal neurons and SIF cells. In contrast, GluR4-like immunoreactivity was not observed in the principal cells; however, SIF cells exhibited intense immunoreactivity of GluR4. In the pterygopalatine ganglion, the profile of the immunoreactivity was similar to that seen in the superior cervical ganglia. The subunit compositions between the principal cells and SIF cells were different, whereas the compositions in cell species involved in the autonomic ganglia, sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia were identical. This suggests that glutamate is another important preganglionic transmitter together with acetylcholine, and the responses elicited in the principal cells and SIF cells might be different because of the difference in subunit composition.

Animals↗
PubMed1982

Substance P as an excitatory transmitter of primary afferent neurons in guinea-pig sympathetic ganglia.

Electrophysiological and neurochemical experiments were carried out to examine a possible transmitter role substance P in the prevertebral ganglia of the guinea-pig. When potentials were recorded intracellularly from neurons of the isolated ganglia, stimulation of the pre- or postganglionic nerves elicited a non-cholinergic slow excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP). This synaptic potential was compared with the effects of substance P. Brief application of substance P caused a depolarization of the ganglion cells with a similar time course to that of the non-cholinergic slow EPSP. Changes in membrane resistance during the substance P-induced depolarization resembled those associated with the non-cholinergic slow EPSP. During the substance P-induced depolarization the non-cholinergic slow EPSP was markedly depressed. Attempts were made to determine the origin of the fibers eliciting the non-cholinergic slow EPSP. In the inferior mesenteric ganglia isolated together with preganglionic nerves that retained intact connections with spinal nerve roots, dorsal root stimulation evoked a non-cholinergic slow EPSP but not a cholinergic fast EPSP in the ganglion cells, whereas ventral root stimulation caused only cholinergic fast EPSPs. Following the prolonged treatment with capsaicin, the non-cholinergic slow EPSP was greatly depressed or abolished. Radioimmunoassay revealed that after ligation or section of pre- or postganglionic nerves an accumulation of substance P occurred in the proximal stumps of the interrupted nerves. Stimulation with high potassium medium evoked a release of immunoreactive substance P from the prevertebral ganglia and the release was calcium-dependent. The present findings suggests that axon collaterals of certain visceral primary efferents form synapses with principal cells in the prevertebral ganglia and release substance P as a transmitter for the non-cholinergic slow EPSP.

Adrenergic Fibers↗
PubMed1992

Receptor binding sites for cholecystokinin, galanin, somatostatin, substance P and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide in sympathetic ganglia.

Sympathetic ganglia are innervated by neuropeptide-containing fibers originating from pre- and postganglionic sympathetic neurons, dorsal root ganglion neurons, and in some cases, myenteric neurons. In the present report receptor autoradiography was used to determine whether sympathetic ganglia express receptor binding sites for several of these neuropeptides including bombesin, calcitonin gene-related peptide-alpha, cholecystokinin, galanin, neurokinin A, somatostatin, substance P, and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide. The sympathetic ganglia examined included the rat and rabbit superior cervical ganglia and the rabbit superior mesenteric ganglion. High levels of receptor binding sites for cholecystokinin, galanin, somatostatin, substance P, and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide were observed in all sympathetic ganglia examined, although only discrete neuronal populations within each ganglion appeared to express receptor binding sites for any particular neuropeptide. These data suggest that discrete populations of postganglionic sympathetic neurons may be regulated by neuropeptides released from pre- and postganglionic sympathetic neurons, dorsal root ganglion neurons, and myenteric neurons.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Effects of focal basal ganglia lesions on timing and force control.

Studies of basal ganglia dysfunction in humans have generally involved patients with degenerative disorders, notably Parkinson's disease. In many instances, the performance of these patients is compared to that of patients with focal lesions of other brain structures such as the cerebellum. In the present report, we studied the performance of patients with focal basal ganglia lesions on three fundamental motor tasks. The patients all had suffered unilateral damage in the striatum and were tested in the chronic state. The first task required the participants to tap with their index finger as fast as possible; this test provided a simple assessment of motor competence. Compared to controls, the maximum tapping rate was lower for the patients when tapping with their contralesional limb, although the deficit was not severe. The second and third tasks were designed to assess timing and force control, two functions that have been associated with basal ganglia function. The patients performed similar to controls on both tasks and showed no evidence of impairment when using their contralesional limb compared to their ipsilesional limb. The results indicate that unilateral basal ganglia lesions tend to produce minor motor problems in force control, and fail to support the hypothesized role of the basal ganglia in timing.

Aged↗
PubMed2002

Co-expression of VRL-1 and calbindin D-28k in the rat sensory ganglia.

The co-expression of vanilloid receptor 1-like receptor (VRL-1), a newly cloned capsaicin-receptor homologue, with calbindin D-28k was examined in the rat sensory ganglia. The co-expression was rare in the dorsal root, trigeminal and jugular ganglia and abundant in the petrosal and nodose ganglia. In the dorsal root ganglion, none of VRL-1-immunoreactive (ir) neuron co-expressed calbindin D-28k-immunoreactivity (ir). Of the VRL-1-ir neurons, 9 and 5% showed calbindin D-28k ir in the trigeminal and jugular ganglia, respectively. On the other hand, 35 and 63% of VRL-1-ir neurons in the petrosal and nodose ganglia, respectively, co-expressed these substances. The retrograde tracing method indicated that petrosal neurons which co-expressed VRL-1-and calbindin D-28k-ir innervated taste buds in the circumvallate papilla. The present findings may suggest that VRL-1 is associated with chemosensory functions in visceral sensory neurons.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Mineralization of the basal ganglia: implications for neuropsychiatry, pathology and neuroimaging.

This article examines the evidence for and against the existence of basal ganglia mineralization as a defined clinico-pathological entity. In reviewing the literature on basal ganglia mineralization, this article emphasizes evidence derived from different neuroimaging modalities, genetics, metabolic studies, postmortem series and their possible neuropsychiatric correlates. Relevant articles were collected through Medline and Index Medicus searches. Researchers have encountered multiple difficulties in accepting basal ganglia mineralization as a distinct entity. This syndrome lacks set clinical criteria or a unique etiology; not surprisingly, numerous articles have applied varied definitions. Because many of the reported cases have not been examined postmortem, both the extent and nature of their mineralization remains uncertain. Furthermore, researchers have considered small foci of basal ganglia mineralization a normal phenomenon of aging. However, when brain deposits are extensive, they are associated with a set of age-dependent, progressive clinical symptoms. They include cognitive impairment, extrapyramidal symptoms and psychosis. Most cases are related to abnormalities of calcium metabolism, but rare familial cases of idiopathic origin have been reported. Overabundant mineralization of the brain is judged pathological based on its amount, distribution and accompanying clinical symptoms. Although its relation with calcium dysregulation is well known, modern studies have emphasized abnormalities of iron and dopamine metabolism. The authors suggest that these metabolic abnormalities may link basal ganglia mineralization to psychotic symptomatology.

Basal Ganglia↗