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PubMed2004

[Bioactive effectiveness of selected disinfective agents on Gram-negative bacilli isolated from hospital environment].

In our study the susceptibility (MIC) of chosen 21 strains of Gram-negative bacilli isolated in hospitals to disinfectant agents (glucoprotamine, sodium dichloroisocyanurate, potassium persulfate), the effectiveness of these disinfectants against selected bacteria and their effectiveness to biofilm forming bacteria was determined. It was found that glucoprotamine showed the highest activity to Gram-negative bacteria. Obtained MIC values for glucoprotamine (except 1 strain of S. marcescens) were 16-64 times lower that MICs for sodium dichloroisocyanurate and 4-32 times lower that MICs for potassium persulfate. The effectiveness of disinfectants containing potassium persulfate or sodium dichloroisocyanurate was 100% tested by carrier method. Glucoprotamine was ineffective against 2 out of 9 strains (18%): E. cloacae and S. marcescens. It was found that disinfectants were more effective against Gram-negative bacteria in carrier methods than for biofilm forming bacteria. 86% of bacteria growing 5 days on a catheter were resistant to working solution of disinfectant containing glucoprotamine (5200 mg/L) or potassium persulfate (4300 mg/L); 66.6% of tested bacteria were resistant to working solution of sodium dichloroisocyanurate (1795.2 mg/L). In our study the highest effectiveness to biofilm forming bacteria showed disinfectant with sodium dichloroisocyanurate, the lowest--with glucoprotamine.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Disinfection using ultraviolet radiation as an antimicrobial agent: a review and synthesis of mechanisms and concerns.

Control of microbes in sensitive health care settings cannot be maintained without effective disinfection methods. Recently, increasing microbial resistance to common chemical agents, including antibiotics, has required the implementation of new approaches to disinfection where such sanitary practices are critical. Pharmaceutical manufacturers and many interrelated industries also have a need for effective disinfection and sanitation strategies. As a result, standard practices that direct and maintain effective microbial controls are established. These practices exploit a thorough understanding of biological processes and manipulate them to preserve the quality and safety of a valuable product. Most biological processes are delicately balanced with their surroundings, or environment. When changes are made to the environment during disinfection, damaged microbes may respond by repairing the immediate damage or by adapting their biological processes through developing a resistance. Unless sound disinfection procedures are consistently applied, new strains of environmental microbes that can utilize multiple resistance markers may be artificially selected. Examples of related drug resistance are currently being studied and managed in many large hospitals, but non-chemical methods are also subject to similar concerns. Here, we review the use of ultraviolet-based disinfection practices, the biological basis for them, and some potential desensitization issues that may develop. Finally, we suggest some approaches to study and practically address these effects.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗
PubMed1986

[The problem of heat activation of bacterial spores after disinfection with regard to an aerosol method of decontaminating equipment and rooms].

This paper describes investigations on disinfection of germ carriers, contaminated with an alcoholic suspension of Bacillus cereus or Bacillus subtilis. Result of disinfection is compared with that of an additional heat treatment (80 degrees C, 60 min) after disinfection. Besides Formalin, Tegodor forte (Th. Goldschmidt, Essen) and P 3 oxonia active (Henkel KG, Düsseldorf) are tested with different concentration and duration. Heat activation was possible with all three disinfectants. For illuminating the conditions of activation, circumstances of heat action after disinfection with formaldehyde-aerosol have been varied. Heat activation in dry air, moist air and distilled water was not successful. Only in Nutrient Broth (Standard I-Bouillon; Merck, Darmstadt) spores were viable again, after activation. Addition of serum as a protective cover had no influence on the result. Consequences of the results on a disinfection method with formaldehyde-aerosol are discussed.

Aerosols↗
PubMed1985

[Possibilities and limits of disinfection].

While making allowance for the changes in defining the term disinfection during the last few decades the present understanding of this term is explained. Moreover the prerequisites to be satisfied for proper disinfection, especially in the light of the new guidelines of the DGHM, are dealt with. This covers both the types of germs to be affected by the methods and the various modes of disinfection. As known routes of transmission obtaining with infectious hospitalism are also included in the discussion, an attempt is made to assign priorities to certain methods of disinfection, depending on the extend to which they are capable of preventing the transmission of microorganisms. The same criteria are applied to the areas outside the hospital (medical and dental practices, residential quarters, kitchen etc.) Finally it is attempted ro provide a forecast of the future importance of disinfection, with special emphasis on chemical disinfection. Known limitations and others to be expected, such as those imposed by the toxicity of the substances used, the resistance to such substances developed by micro-organisms, material incompatibilities, irreconcilable relationships between concentration and time of action and the like, are discussed.

Disinfectants↗
PubMed1981

[Cleaning and disinfection of cattle trucks (author's transl)].

When the Order on 'Disinfection of Motor Vehicles and Trailers, 1976' failed to fulfil its purpose in practice, the present authors made a closer examination of the bacteriological state of cattle trucks, both before cleaning as required by law and after cleaning and disinfection. The supposition that loading platforms lined with aluminum are more readily cleaned than are wooden platforms, was verified by the results. Moreover, it was found that aluminium-lined platforms can be adequately cleaned with cold water. Markedly superior results are not obtained when hot water (approximately 80 degrees C) is used. An effective disinfectant should be applied after cleaning to reduce bacteriological contamination to a further extent. When the loading platforms have been cleaned using a high-pressure syringe, satisfactory results are obtained by disinfection with a one per cent solution of Halamid or a solution of Stafilex (750 ppm of active chlorine). To ensure an effective control of disease in animals, the loading platforms of cattle trucks should be cleaned and disinfected daily after use. The above disinfectants are useful for this purpose but sodium hydroxide is unsuited because of its corrosive effect.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Contamination of disinfection solution bottles used by contact lens wearers.

We investigated the contamination of disinfection solution bottles after 2 weeks of patient use. Forty-four subjects participated in the study and each used three soft lens care systems (cross-over study). The order in which the three care systems were dispensed was randomized to eliminate systematic bias. Sixteen subjects used only one of the systems (disinfection solutions) over three consecutive 2-week periods (reliability study). Contamination of the disinfection solution bottles occurred in 12 of the 180 bottles sampled (7%), and the level of contamination of these bottles ranged up to 10(5) colony forming units per milliliter. A wide range of microorganisms was identified in these positive samples, many of which were potential ocular pathogens. None of the subjects in the study (n = 60) showed contamination in more than one of the three solution bottles sampled, suggesting that the phenomenon was not strongly patient specific. The rate of contamination of disinfection solution bottles was not influenced by contact lens wearing experience (i.e., familiarity with care procedures), by the time of year (season) at which the samples were collected, or by the subjects' compliance with hand washing. However, among the 44 subjects in the cross-over study, the rate of contamination of disinfection solution bottles was influenced by the type of disinfection solution.

Bacteria↗
PubMed1995

Evaluation of dimensional stability of elastomeric impression materials during disinfection.

Disinfection of impression materials is recommended for preventing cross-contamination in dental clinics. However, aspects of the evaluation of elastomeric impression materials only slightly subjected to the effects of disinfectants have not been established. Therefore, the effects of sodium hypochlorite, glutaral, iodine, and ethanol disinfectants on elastomeric impression materials, condensation silicone, polysulfide, addition-type silicone (vinyl silicone), hydrophilic vinyl silicone, and polyether, were evaluated directly in a time-dependent manner by a non-contact displacement meter. Condensation silicone impression materials and polysulfide rubber impression materials greatly shrank over time, but their shrinkage decreased with immersion in disinfectants. Vinyl silicone impression materials and polyether impression materials showed excellent dimensional stability in air. However, hydrophilic vinyl silicone impression materials and polyether impression materials expanded greatly when immersed in disinfectants, especially when immersed in ethanol. Hydrophobic vinyl silicone impression materials showed excellent dimensional stability regardless of the presence or absence of disinfectants.

Dental Impression Materials↗
PubMed2005

Use of the Comet test and micronucleus assay on human white blood cells for in vitro assessment of genotoxicity induced by different drinking water disinfection protocols.

Surface water disinfection can lead to the formation of mutagenic/carcinogenic by-products derived from reactions with naturally occurring inorganic compounds. We investigated the feasibility and potential usefulness of an integrated approach to genotoxicity analysis of drinking water. The approach employed the Comet and micronucleus (MN) assays to evaluate the DNA and chromosomal damage produced by water extracts in human blood cells. Surface water samples from Lago Trasimeno (Italy) were collected in different seasons (July 2000, October 2000, February 2001, and June 2001), and samples were disinfected with sodium hypochloride (NaClO), chlorine dioxide (ClO(2)), or peracetic acid (PAA). Extracts of untreated and treated water were incubated with primary human leukocytes. The Comet assay revealed both strong seasonal variations and differences between samples processed by the three disinfection protocols. The three disinfectants increased the genotoxicity of the water collected in July 2000 and October 2000, with PAA producing the greatest amount of DNA damage. Extracts of raw water collected in February 2001 produced so much DNA damage that the relative genotoxic potentials of the three disinfectants could not be evaluated. No increase in MN frequency was detected in any of the samples. The multi-endpoint MN assay indicated, however, that our study samples (especially the sample collected in the February 2001) were cytotoxic. We conclude that this integrated approach to genotoxicity assessment may be useful both for the quality control of raw drinking water and to help compare the potential health risks associated with alternative disinfection processes.

Chlorine Compounds↗
PubMed1993

Three-dimensional investigation of the accuracy of impression materials after disinfection.

The influence of the two new disinfection systems Hygojet/MD 520 and Impresept on the accuracy of eight impression materials was evaluated with a clinically relevant abutment arrangement. In addition, an "aseptic" irreversible hydrocolloid was tested under the same test conditions but without the disinfection procedure. The dimensional changes of all eight impression materials related to the disinfection procedures were small. Although statistically significant interactions of the impression materials and the disinfection systems were found, the influence of the two tested disinfection systems on the dimensional accuracy of the impressions does not seem to be clinically relevant. From the standpoint of impression accuracy, both tested disinfection systems and the tested "aseptic" irreversible hydrocolloid can be recommended for clinical and laboratory use.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1983

Disinfection of respirator tubing: a comparison of chemical versus hot water machine-assisted processing.

A comparison of machine-assisted chemical disinfection, using a glutaraldehyde solution, and machine-assisted hot water disinfection was made by placing a large inoculum (approximately 10(7) colonies of Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Acinetobacter calcoaceticus var. anitratus) in sets of tubing before processing. Machine-assisted chemical processing proved to be the most efficient method with a disinfection failure rate of 6 per cent (two positive tubes out of 35). Machine-assisted hot water processing had a disinfection failure rate of 83 per cent (44 of 53 tubes were not successfully disinfected). Some of the tubes that were disinfection failures were dried in a hot air cabinet after the initial sampling, which further reduced the colony counts in the tubing but did not totally eliminate growth except in one tube. The colony counts after drying, showed that A. anitratus was 15 per cent more sensitive to hot air drying than Ps. aeruginosa, but this was not a statistically significant reduction.

Acinetobacter↗
PubMed1990

Studies of a novel agent possessing resistance to moist heat and disinfectants: parallels with Creutzfeldt-Jakob agent.

The resistance to sterilization and disinfection of a novel replicating agent (IFDO) with similarities to Creutzfeldt-Jakob agent (CJA) was investigated. Moist heat at 121 degrees C for 30 min did not kill the agent. Increasing the temperature to 140 degrees C, and the length of the autoclave cycle to 120 min also failed to guarantee sterilization, although some samples were sterilized after these treatments. Dry heat at 160 degrees C for 1 h sterilized 24 of 25 samples. Overnight disinfection with 10% Stericol or 1.2% chlorhexidine left few detectable survivors. Samples pretreated with these disinfectants and then autoclaved at 134 degrees C for 20 min were sterilized. Disinfection with hypochlorite (500 ppm available chlorine) was very effective if organic matter derived from spent culture medium was removed. We have adopted overnight Stericol disinfection, followed by autoclaving at 134 degrees C for 1 h for sterilization of glassware contaminated by IFDO. The agent may provide a valid model for sterilization of items contaminated with CJA and, if so, our data suggest that current disinfection guidelines for CJA by autoclaving at 134 degrees C for 1 h are inadequate.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob Syndrome↗
PubMed2005

Study of potential toxic effects on rainbow trout hepatocytes of surface water treated with chlorine or alternative disinfectants.

This study evaluates the effects of disinfection on the formation of toxic compounds in lake water treated with sodium hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide and peracetic acid (a disinfectant not previously used in drinking water processes). Chlorine reacts with the natural organic matter or contaminants in surface waters and produces a complex mixture of disinfection by-products (DBPs), some of which have been shown to be carcinogenic, mutagenic and/or teratogenic in animal studies. To define the potential toxicity on aquatic animals, disinfected drinking waters obtained from a pilot plant fed with water coming from Lake Trasimeno (Perugia) were collected, adsorbed by using silica C18 cartridges, and then eluted in sequence with ethylacetate, dichloromethane and methanol. The eluates were concentrated under vacuum and resuspended in dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO). Primary cultures of rainbow trout hepatocytes were exposed to three amounts of water concentrate (equivalent to 0.5, 0.25 and 0.125 l of disinfected water per ml of culture medium) for 24 h at 20 degrees C, after which their viability, glutathione content (GSH), free radical production (ROS) and cytochrome P4501A3 expression were determined. The disinfected water samples were collected during different seasons in order to evaluate a possible correlation between seasonal water variations and formation of toxic compounds. None of the water concentrates showed any cytotoxic effect or variations in GSH content, but significant increases in ROS production were detected in the autumn water concentrates from the treatments with sodium hypochlorite and chlorine dioxide. Cytochrome P4501A3 expression was not modified in the hepatocytes exposed to the water concentrates irrespective to the sampling season.

Animals↗
PubMed2007

Inactivation of Escherichia coli in the electrochemical disinfection process using a Pt anode.

Recently, the electrochemical disinfection has gained a great interest as one of the alternatives to conventional chlorination due to its high effectiveness and environmental compatibility. Despite the extensive reports on electro-chlorination disinfection, few researches were reported on the systems without generating chlorine. This study mainly focused on the potential disinfecting ability of electro-generated oxidants other than chlorine with using an inert medium (chloride-free phosphate buffer solution), which was intended to exclude the formation of chlorine during the electrolysis, as the Escherichia coli as an indicator bacterium was disinfected by applying the current to a platinum anode. The electrochemical inactivation of E. coli without chlorine production was demonstrated to occur in two distinct stages. The first stage inactivation takes place rapidly at the beginning of electrolysis, which appears to be achieved by the electrosorption of negatively charged E. coli cells to the anode surface, followed by a direct electron transfer reaction. As the electrolysis continues further, the inactivation becomes slower but steady, in contrast to the first stage of inactivation. This was attributed to the action of reactive oxidants generated from water discharge, such as hydroxyl radical. Overall, this study suggests that the electrochemical disinfection could be successfully performed even without producing chlorine, recommending the potential application for disinfecting water that does not allow including any chloride ions (such as the production of ultra-pure sterilized water for semiconductor washing).

Disinfection↗
PubMed2004

Comet assay and micronucleus test in circulating erythrocytes of Cyprinus carpio specimens exposed in situ to lake waters treated with disinfectants for potabilization.

The detection of a possible genotoxic effect of surface water treated with disinfectants for potabilization is the aim of the present work. The Comet assay and the micronucleus test were applied in circulating erythrocytes of Cyprinus carpio. Young specimens (20-30 g) were exposed in experimental basins, built within the potabilization plant of Castiglione del Lago (Perugia, Italy). In this plant the water of the Trasimeno Lake is treated and disinfected for potabilization before it is distributed to the people in the net of drinkable water. A continuous flow of water at a constant rate was supplied to basins; the water was continuously treated at a constant concentration with one of the three tested disinfectants (sodium hypochlorite, peracetic acid and chloride dioxide), one control basin being supplied with untreated water. Three sampling campaigns were performed: October 2000, February 2001 and June 2001. Repeated blood samplings through intracardiac punctures allowed to follow the same fish populations after different exposure times: before introduction of the disinfectant, and 10 or 20 days afterwards. An additional blood sampling was performed 3 h after addition of the disinfectant in other, simultaneously exposed, fish populations. Genotoxic damage was shown in fish exposed to water disinfected with sodium hypochlorite and chloride dioxide. The Comet assay showed an immediate response, i.e. DNA damage that was induced directly in circulating erythrocytes, whereas micronuclei reached their highest frequencies at later sampling times, when a genotoxic damage in stem cells of the cephalic kidney is expressed in circulating erythrocytes. The quality of the untreated surface water seems to be the most important parameter for the long-term DNA damage in circulating erythrocytes.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Comet and micronucleus assays in zebra mussel cells for genotoxicity assessment of surface drinking water treated with three different disinfectants.

The aim of this research was to study the influence of classic (sodium hypochlorite and chlorine dioxide) and alternative (peracetic acid [PAA]) disinfectants on the formation of mutagens in surface waters used for human consumption. For this proposal, in vivo genotoxicity tests (Comet and micronucleus assay) were performed in an experimental pilot plant set up near Lake Trasimeno (Central Italy). The effects were detected in different tissues (haemocytes for the Comet assay and gills for the micronucleus test [MN]) of Dreissena polymorpha exposed in experimental basins supplied with lake water with/without the different disinfectants. Specimen collection was performed before disinfectant input for both tests and after the start of disinfection (3 h and 20 days for the Comet assay and 10 and 20 days for micronucleus test, respectively) to assess short- and long- term exposure effects during three sampling campaigns (October 2000, February 2001, and June 2001). Seasonal differences in baseline levels of DNA migration and micronucleus frequency were observed. Raw water quality modulation on disinfection by-product formation was shown. The results of the micronucleus and Comet assays on zebra mussel cells after in situ exposure to water disinfected with the two chlorinated compounds clearly indicate DNA/by-product interaction. PAA did not induce either clastogenic/aneugenic effects or DNA damage on this bioindicator.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Formation of nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) during chlorine disinfection of wastewater effluents prior to use in irrigation systems.

The probable human carcinogen nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is produced when wastewater effluent is disinfected with chlorine. In systems where wastewater effluent is used for landscape or crop irrigation, relatively high chlorine doses (i.e., up to 2,000,mg-min/L) are often used to ensure adequate disinfection and to minimize biofouling in the irrigation system. To assess the formation of NDMA in such systems, samples were collected from several locations in full-scale wastewater treatment systems and their associated irrigation systems. Up to 460 ng/L of NDMA was produced in full-scale systems in which chloramines were formed when wastewater effluent was disinfected with chlorine in the presence of ammonia. Less than 20 ng/L of NDMA was produced in systems that used free chlorine (i.e., HOCl/OCl(-)) for disinfection in the absence of ammonia. The production of NDMA in ammonia-containing systems was correlated with the concentration of NDMA precursors in the wastewater effluent and the overall dose of chlorine applied. Much of the NDMA formation occurred in chlorine contact basins or in storage basins where water that contained chloramines was held after disinfection. When landscape or crop irrigation is practiced with ammonia-containing wastewater effluent, NDMA production can be controlled by use of lower chlorine doses or by application of alternative disinfectants.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2006

Disinfection of Legionella pneumophila by ultrasonic treatment with TiO2.

An ultrasonic treatment system, using a TiO2 photocatalyst, was used to disinfect Legionella pneumophila. A kinetic study of the process indicates that TiO2 significantly improves the disinfection process. The concentrations of viable cells were reduced to 6% of the initial concentrations in the presence of 0.2g/ml TiO2 after a 30 min of treatment period, while only an 18% reduction was observed in the absence of TiO2 . The potency of the disinfection could be enhanced, to some extent, by increasing the amount of TiO2 used. Cell concentrations were decreased by an order of 3 within 30 min of treatment in the presence of 1.0 g/ml TiO2 . The disinfection power in the presence of TiO2 versus Al2O3 was also compared and the findings showed that TiO2 induced a higher cell killing. No significant effect of initial cell concentration on the disinfection was found in the range of 10(2)-10(7) CFU/ml after a 30 min of treatment period. The mechanism of cell killing was investigated by examining the effects of OH radical scavengers such as ascorbic acid, histidine and glutathione. The disinfection power was reduced in samples that contained these radical scavengers, thus indicating the importance of OH radicals.

Aluminum Oxide↗
PubMed1999

Antimicrobial efficacy of endoscopic disinfection procedures: a controlled, multifactorial investigation.

BACKGROUND: Adequate disinfection of endoscopes is essential to prevent environmental and patient-to-patient transmission of infectious agents, but data from controlled studies are limited. Moreover, there is controversy regarding current guidelines for disinfection. We compared the antimicrobial efficacy of several endoscopic disinfection procedures controlling for multiple factors that affect reprocessing. METHODS: A colonoscope was contaminated with 10(8) CFU/mL of Enterococcus faecalis as a standardized inoculum. The colonoscope was passed through 1 of 16 study arms (5 reps/arm for a total of 80 runs) that were controlled for all possible combinations of the following variables: manual precleaning; 10-, 20-, or 45-minute glutaraldehyde exposure; air or ethanol drying; or automated reprocessing with peracetic acid (liquid sterilization system). Suction accessory channels and air-water channels were harvested for microbiologic culture. RESULTS: Control runs (no cleaning or disinfection) recovered more than 5 x 10(7) CFU/mL from each sampling site. When each processing variable was isolated independent of other variables, the benefits of manual precleaning, longer soak times, and ethanol drying were apparent. When factors were combined, manual precleaning followed by 20- and 45-minute glutaraldehyde exposure and ethanol drying removed all test organisms, as did processing with the liquid sterilization system. CONCLUSION: Although the initial cost is higher, the automated liquid sterilization system provides effective sterilization and minimizes worker exposure. In units where chemical disinfection is used, our results suggest that manual precleaning followed by at least 20-minute glutaraldehyde exposure and ethanol rinse drying are sufficient to achieve complete disinfection.

Colony Count, Microbial↗