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PubMed1994

Prevalence of atypical mycobacteriosis in slaughtered swine in Gunma Prefecture and the serovars of the isolates.

Atypical mycobacteriosis was detected in 4,919 (0.28%) of 1,776,294 swine slaughtered at the G slaughter house in Gunma Prefecture during the period 1988-1990. The tuberculous lesions were mainly observed in the submaxillary (64.4%) and mesenteric lymph nodes (29.0%). The enzootic and sporadic infections were detected in 4 and 870 of 1,200 piggeries, respectively. Of the 2,076 infected swine detected between September, 1988 and December, 1989, 231 swine were submitted to the isolation of Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex (MAIC). MAIC was isolated from 141 of 219 swine that had tuberculous lesions only in the lymph nodes and from all of the remaining 12 swine that had lesions in the liver or in both the lymph nodes and organs. MAIC was also isolated from 11 gastric and 6 cecal contents of the 231 swine. Of 431 strains isolated, 336 were classified into 13 serovars. M. intracellulare serovar 6 (34.6%) was the most predominant, followed by serovars 8 (21.8%), 4 (8.6%) and 10 (6.5%). Four strains (0.9%) were identified as M. avium serovar 3. In 16 swine, each individual harbored plural serovars. The results of the investigation suggested that the atypical mycobacteriosis due to MAIC was widely distributed in swine in Gunma Prefecture.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Expression of inflammatory cytokine mRNA in lymphoid tissue from swine experimentally infected with Mycobacterium avium serovar 2.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate in situ expression of inflammatory cytokine mRNA in lymphoid tissue of swine experimentally infected with Mycobacterium avium serovar 2. ANIMALS: 7 noninfected pigs and 7 pigs infected with M. avium serovar 2. PROCEDURE: Expression of mRNA of inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha), interleukin (IL)-1beta IL-6, and IL-8 in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded blocks of lymphoid tissue (lymph nodes and tonsil) of swine experimentally infected with M. avium serovar 2 was compared with that of noninfected pigs. Tissues were evaluated by use of morphologic localization of cytokine mRNA, using in situ hybridization at 160 days after inoculation. RESULTS: A noticeable increase in mRNA expression for TNFalpha and mild increases in mRNA expression of IL-8 and IL-1beta were detected in mandibular lymph nodes from infected swine, compared with noninfected swine. Mild increase in mRNA expression for 1L-6 also was observed in tonsils from infected swine. Cytokine mRNA was detected in macrophages and lymphocytes, primarily within cortical follicles and adjacent mantle zones. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Expression of mRNA for inflammatory cytokines was increased in lymphoid tissue of infected swine, possibly resulting from local factors on, or secreted by, M. avium. These results suggest that alterations in cytokine mRNA expression are important in the pathogenesis and clinical course of mycobacteriosis in swine. Modulation of the immune response by vaccines that selectively target cytokine expression and secretion in response to mycobacterial challenge may be effective in prevention of mycobacteriosis in swine.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Prevalence of exposure to Salmonella spp in finishing swine marketed in Iowa.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence of antibodies against Salmonella spp in swine marketed in Iowa. ANIMALS: Swine marketed by 1,044 low-volume producers and 45 high-volume producers. PROCEDURE: Samples of diaphragm muscle collected from swine carcasses were tested by an indirect ELISA based on lipopolysaccharides from Salmonella spp, in particular Salmonella serovar Typhimurium. Prevalence of positive results for antibodies against Salmonella spp for carcasses, lots, and swine for each producer was determined. Producer-level seroprevalence was used to classify swine from producers as having negligible, low, moderate, or widespread evidence of previous or historical exposure to Salmonella spp. RESULTS: From low-volume producers, 23,609 of 25,478 (92.7%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 92.4% to 92.9%) samples had negative results, and 1,863 (7.3%; 95% CI, 7.05% to 7.56%) had antibodies against Salmonella spp. Of the 6,299 lots of swine tested, 1,191 (18.9%) contained at least 1 sample with positive results. From high-volume producers, 203 of 2,486 (8.1%; 95% CI, 6.8% to 9.3%) samples had antibodies against Salmonella spp, and 124 of 629 lots had at least 1 sample with positive results for antibodies against Salmonella spp. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Less than 10% of pigs marketed in Iowa are apparently exposed to Salmonella spp. Most swine marketed by low-volume producers had negligible or little evidence of exposure to Salmonella spp, whereas a higher percentage of swine marketed by high-volume producers had positive results when tested to detect antibodies against Salmonella spp.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Hepatitis E virus sequences in swine related to sequences in humans, The Netherlands.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV), a major cause of viral hepatitis in much of the developing world, has recently been detected in swine in North America and Asia, raising concern about potential for zoonotic transmission. To investigate if HEV is commonly present in swine in the Netherlands, pooled stool samples from 115 swine farms and nine individual pigs with diarrhea were assayed by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) amplification. HEV RNA was detected by RT-PCR and hybridization in 25 (22%) of the pooled specimens, but in none of the individual samples. RT-PCR amplification products of open reading frames 1 and 2 were sequenced, and the results were compared with published sequences of HEV genotypes from humans and swine. HEV strains from swine in the Netherlands were clustered in at least two groups, together with European and American isolates from swine and humans. Our data show that HEV in swine in the Netherlands are genetically closely related to HEV isolates from humans. Although zoonotic transmission has not been proven, these findings suggest that swine may be reservoir hosts of HEV.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Distribution of Salmonella in swine production ecosystems.

The objective of this 2-year field survey was to sample multiple ecological compartments within swine production systems to identify potential sources of Salmonella infection for swine. Twelve single-site production systems within Illinois were identified by slaughter sampling to have detectable Salmonella in swine and therefore selected for study. There were four visits to each farm during a 5-month period. Fecal samples were obtained from swine and other wild and domestic mammals. Arthropods and environmental samples of feed, water, pen floors, boots, and bird feces were also collected. All 8,066 samples obtained were cultured to detect Salmonella. Salmonella was detected on 11 of the 12 farms. There were 206 positive cultures, including samples from swine (83), pen floors (54), boots (32), flies (16), mice (9), cats (3), and birds (3). Swine shedding Salmonella in feces were detected on 9 of the 12 farms. The more Salmonella-abundant ecological compartments were cats (12% of samples positive), boots (11%), bird feces (8%), flies (6%), and mice (5%); 2.1% of 4,024 swine samples were positive. All 221 feed samples were negative for Salmonella. There was a correlation between a farm having a high prevalence of shedding Salmonella in pigs and a high abundance on pen floors, flies, and boots. The most common serotypes detected were Derby, Agona, Worthington, and Uganda, which were distributed throughout the ecosystem, suggesting widespread transmission across ecological compartments. The ubiquitous distribution of Salmonella suggests that an effective control strategy must target multiple compartments of the swine production ecosystem.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed1993

Feral swine as a potential amplifying host for vesicular stomatitis virus New Jersey serotype on Ossabaw Island, Georgia.

Sentinel feral swine (Sus scrofa) on Ossabaw Island, Georgia (USA), were serologically monitored for antibodies to vesicular stomatitis New Jersey serotype (VSNJ) virus from 17 April to 27 August 1990. Seroconversions to VSNJ virus were detected in 24% of swine island-wide. Differences in the incidence of seroconversion were detected between swine sampled in the Pleistocene and Holocene formations of the island suggesting that the presence of virus is forest type dependent. Based on the consistency in onset and spatial distribution of seroconversions with data from 1981 to 1985, this is a very stable host-parasite system. Sequential virus isolation attempts from nasal swabs, tonsil swabs, and blood were made on a subsample of 54 sentinel swine from 9 May to 4 July 1990. The VSNJ virus was isolated from five swine from 16 May to 20 June. Vesicular lesions were detected on only two of these animals. Although infections in these feral swine were short-lived (< 7 days) and were followed by a strong neutralizing antibody response, VSNJ virus was detected in a single group of swine for a period exceeding 1 month. From these data, it appears that feral swine could provide a source of virus to feeding arthropods for extended periods of time. The failure to detect a viremia in these animals, however, indicates that a source other than blood may be required for transmission to occur.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Venereal transmission of pseudorabies viruses indigenous to feral swine.

Between 1995 and 1998, we designed a series of studies in which we attempted to determine the main routes of transmission involved in the natural infection of pseudorabies virus (PRV) indigenous to free-ranging feral swine (Sus scrofa). Naturally infected feral sows transmitted the infection to uninfected feral boars, with which they had been commingled for a 6-wk period. Pseudorabies virus was isolated from boar preputial swabs, but not from nasal swabs. Three of the same PRV-infected feral sows did not transmit the infection to domestic boars during a 16 wk commingling period, despite the fact that they became pregnant. Feral boars, naturally infected with PRV transmitted the virus to domestic gilts while penned together during 6 wk. Pseudorabies virus was isolated from vaginal swabs, but not from nasal swabs of gilts, after 2 and 3 wk of commingling. When the same infected boars were commingled with either feral or domestic boars for 13 wk, PRV transmission did not occur. None of the exposed boars developed neutralizing antibodies or yielded virus from their preputial or nasal swabs. Our results indicate that PRV indigenous to feral swine is preferentially transmitted to feral or domestic swine of the opposite sex by the venereal route. This mode of transmission differs from that seen in the natural transmission of PRV prevalent in domestic swine, where contaminated secretions, excretions and aerosols are responsible for the spread of the virus. Based on these results, we feel that as long as feral swine do not come into direct contact with domestic swine, PRV-infected feral swine probably pose only a limited risk to the success of the National Pseudorabies Eradication Program. The fact that PRV is usually transmitted from feral to domestic swine at the time of mating would indicate that the isolation of domestic herds by the use of a "double fence," should be adequate protection against reinfection with PRV.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed1975

Evaluation of soluble-antigen fluorescent antibody test for antibodies to Trichinella spiralis in Experimentallly infected swine.

The soluble-antigen fluorescent antibody (SAFA) test was evaluated at intervals from 7 days to 1 year in 42 swine infected with 25, 100, 500, 2,500, 12,000, or 250,000 Trichinella spiralis larvae. Serums were test positive as early as 14 days after exposure in swine fed 25 larvae and as early as 7 days in swine fed 100 or 500 larvae. Serums of all swine fed larger numbers of larvae were test positive by day 17 and remained test positive for the duration of the experiment. Fluorescence obtained in tests of serums from noninfected, laboratory-raised swine varied significantly; field tests were not done. The test couldbe done with whole heparinized blood, dried blood, or serum eluted from paper disks. Time required for the test procedure was reduced to approximately 45 minutes. The SAFA test detected antibodies to T spiralis earlier in swine fed smaller numbers of larvae and for longer duration than any other serotest which has been evaluated in swine. The test, particularly if automated, seems adequate as a mass screening test for surveillance and control of trichinosis in swine.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Effect of various vaccination procedures on shedding, latency, and reactivation of attenuated and virulent pseudorabies virus in swine.

Various procedures of vaccination for pseudorabies were compared for their effects on shedding, latency, and reactivation of attenuated and virulent pseudorabies virus. The study included 6 groups: group 1 (10 swine neither vaccinated nor challenge-exposed), group 2 (20 swine not vaccinated, but challenge-exposed), and groups 3 through 6 (10 swine/group, all vaccinated and challenge-exposed). Swine were vaccinated with killed virus IM (group 3) or intranasally (group 4), or with live virus IM (group 5) or intranasally (group 6). The chronologic order of treatments was as follows: vaccination (week 0), challenge of immunity by oronasal exposure to virulent virus (week 4), biopsy of tonsillar tissue (week 12), treatment with dexamethasone in an attempt to reactivate latent virus (week 15), and necropsy (week 21). Vaccination IM with killed or live virus and vaccination intranasally with live virus mitigated clinical signs and markedly reduced the magnitude and duration of virus shedding after challenge exposure. Abatement of signs and shedding was most pronounced for swine that had been vaccinated intranasally with live virus. All swine, except 4 from group 2 and 1 from group 4, survived challenge exposure. Only vaccination intranasally with live virus was effective in reducing the magnitude and duration of virus shedding after virus reactivation. Vaccination intranasally with killed virus was without measurable effect on immunity. Of the 55 swine that survived challenge exposure, 54 were shown subsequently to have latent infections by use of dexamethasone-induced virus reactivation, and 53 were shown to have latent infections by use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with trigeminal ganglia specimens collected at necropsy. Fewer swine were identified by PCR as having latent infections when other tissues were examined; 20 were identified by testing specimens of olfactory bulbs, 4 by testing tonsil specimens collected at necropsy, and 4 by testing tonsillar biopsy specimens. Eighteen of the 20 specimens of olfactory bulbs and 3 of the 4 tonsil specimens collected at necropsy in which virus was detected by PCR were from swine without detectable virus-neutralizing antibody at the time of challenge exposure. One pig that had been vaccinated intranasally with live virus shed vaccine virus from the nose and virulent virus from the pharynx concurrently after dexamethasone treatment. Evaluation of both viral populations for unique strain characteristics failed to provide evidence of virus recombination.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Seroprevalence of antibodies against encephalomyocarditis virus in swine of Iowa.

A total of 2,614 swine from 104 herds located throughout Iowa were tested for antibodies against encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) by use of the microtitration serum neutralization test. The sample was composed of 587 sows and gilts and 2,027 finishing swine. A statistically significant (P less than 0.002) difference was observed between prevalence in sows and gilts (17.2%) and that in finishing swine (12.2%). Breeding swine maintained in total confinement (20.5%) had significantly (P = 0.04) higher prevalence than did breeders maintained in other types of housing (12.1%), whereas prevalence in finishing swine raised in total confinement (6.4%) was significantly (P = 0.02) lower that in finishers not raised in total confinement (13.6%). Association was not detected between prevalence and herd size or between prevalence and season of the year. Adjusting for test specificity and sensitivity, the true prevalence of EMCV infection in swine in Iowa was estimated to be 13.8% in breeding stock and 8.5% in finishing swine. On a herd basis, 89.4% (93/104) of the herds had one or more EMCV-positive swine.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Association of environmental air contaminants with disease and productivity in swine.

A cross-sectional epidemiologic study associating air quality with swine health was conducted on 28 swine farms in southern Sweden. Correlation of housing air environment to swine diseases and productivity (data collected over the preceding 12 months) were investigated. The most prevalent swine health problems detected at slaughter were pneumonia and pleuritis. In farrowing and nursery operations, the most prevalent problem was neonatal pig mortality. Several air contaminants (dust, ammonia carbon dioxide, and microbes) were found to be correlated with these swine health problems. Maximal safe concentrations of air contaminants were estimated on the basis of dose-response correlation to swine health or human health problems. Recommended maximal concentrations of contaminant were: dust, 2.4 mg/m3; ammonia, 7 ppm; endotoxin, 0.08 mg/m3; total microbes, 10(5) colony-forming units/m3; and carbon dioxide, 1,540 ppm. The overall quality of the ventilation system was correlated with lower concentration of ammonia, carbon dioxide, microorganisms, and endotoxin, but not with dust concentrations. High animal density was related to high ammonia and air microbe concentrations. Animal density measured as kilograms of swine per cubic meter (compared with kilograms of pig weight or swine per square meter) had the highest correlation to animal health and air contaminants.

Aerosols↗
PubMed1990

Prevalence of toxoplasmosis in swine from Iowa.

Of swine from 104 herds, 2,616 were tested for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii, using an ELISA. Data were analyzed according to swine type, herd size, facility type, and season. The true prevalence of toxoplasmosis was estimated as 5.4% among finishing swine and 11.4% among sows and gilts. Herds with less than 100 breeding swine were significantly (P less than 0.05) more likely to be infected than were herds with greater than or equal to 100 breeding swine. The rate of seropositivity in breeding swine was approximately the same in infected herds, regardless of herd size. Herds with finishing swine maintained in total confinement were as likely to become infected as were herds maintained in other types of facilities, but infected herds with finishing swine maintained in confinement appeared to have a lower in-herd prevalence than did herds maintained in other types of facilities (P = 0.09). Seasonal effects were not observed, and prevalence remained relatively constant throughout the year.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1990

Class II genes of miniature swine. IV. Characterization and expression of two allelic class II DQB cDNA clones.

Two cDNA clones coding for allelic miniature swine MHC class II Ag DQB chains have been isolated, characterized, and shown to be expressed after transfection into mouse fibroblasts. The two alleles differ at the nucleotide level by an overwhelming proportion of replacement substitutions, suggesting the influence of selection for polymorphism. Most of the resulting predicted amino acid replacements are in regions commonly polymorphic in mouse Ab and human DQB sequences, corresponding to the predicted Ag recognition site. Nucleotide and amino acid sequence comparisons to homologous mouse and human sequences show more similarity between swine and man than between either swine and mouse or man and mouse. This tendency is most pronounced when comparing the 3' untranslated regions. However, an examination of unique cross-species sharing of amino acid residues suggests a closer relationship between both man and miniature swine and man and mouse than between miniature swine and mouse. The simplest explanation we can envision for these findings is that the mouse DQB gene homologue (Ab) has been subject to a higher substitution rate than either swine or human DQB genes. An additional cytoplasmic exon expressed in mouse Ab gene products and in putative human DQB2 gene products is lacking in both swine and human DQB cDNA clones. Its absence suggests either that the expression of this exon in mouse Ab genes was activated after mammalian speciation or that the expression of this exon was independently inactivated in swine DQB and human DQB1 genes. Alternatively, the mouse Ab gene may be derived from the same primordial gene as human DQB2, whereas the pig DQB gene may be derived from the same primordial gene as the human DQB1 gene.

Alleles↗
PubMed1987

Vesicular exanthema of swine virus: isolation and serotyping of field samples.

Virus isolation was attempted from 262 field samples of vesicular material collected during the outbreaks of vesicular exanthema of swine in the U.S.A. from 1952-54. Using primary swine kidney culture, viral cytopathogenic agents were isolated from 76.3% of the samples. However, an overall recovery rate of 82.1% was obtained after samples negative in tissue culture were inoculated intradermally in susceptible swine. All vesicular exanthema of swine virus isolates were identified as serotype B51 using complement fixation and serum neutralization tests. Two isolates did not react with antisera to known vesicular agents of swine and failed to produce vesicles or clinical signs of disease upon inoculation in swine. One vesicular exanthema of swine virus isolate from tissue of equine origin was pathogenic for swine but produced limited vesiculation at the site of intradermalingual inoculation in the tongue of a pony infected experimentally. Type B51 virus was reisolated from lesions produced in the pony and the pony became seropositive for virus type B51.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Oronasal and intramuscular vaccination of swine with a modified live porcine parvovirus vaccine: multiplication and transmission of the vaccine virus.

An attenuated strain NADL-2 of porcine parvovirus (PPV) has been used at the 54th cell culture passage as a modified live-virus (MLV) vaccine. The present study was conducted to determine the minimum immunizing dose of MLV, the extent of MLV multiplication in swine tissues, and its transmission from swine administered MLV oronasally or intramuscularly. Immune response to MLV was dose dependent and swine responded to as little as 10(2) median cell-culture infective doses (CCID50). A 10(5) CCID50 of MLV, the largest dose given, induced the best immune response and was used in subsequent experiments. Route of MLV administration also was found to be important. The MLV replicated in tissues of swine after IM inoculation; however, viral antigen in tissues was less, as measured by immunofluorescence, and serum hemagglutination-inhibition titers for PPV were lower in MLV-inoculated swine than we have previously observed in virulent PPV-inoculated swine. In contrast, oronasal inoculation with MLV did not consistently result in infection of pigs; only 5 of 23 swine had virologic and/or serologic evidence of infection. Virus transmission studies indicated that MLV is shed in feces, but shedding occurs later than that in virulent-PPV-inoculated swine and is inconsistent. Delayed transmission of MLV was observed in contact pigs, which were seronegative at 2 weeks, but became seropositive at 4 weeks--indicating that perhaps a virus population capable of infecting pigs by oronasal route was selected by passage through the pig.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed1981

Susceptibility of vaccinated swine and mice to generalized infection with specific serotypes of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae.

Swine were vaccinated with adsorbate bacterin made from Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae of serotype 2 and were subsequently allotted to 4 exposure groups, each of which was exposed to 1 of the strains of E rhusiopathiae of serotypes 1, 2, 9, or 10. Mice were vaccinated with the same bacterin and were subsequently allotted to 60 exposure groups which were exposed to 60 strains of E rhusiopathiae, comprising 10 strains each of serotypes 1, 2, 4, 9, 10, and 11. Response to challenge of immunity in swine was determined by the presence of clinical signs of acute generalized erysipelas; response in mice was determined by the quantal (live-dead) method. Vaccinated swine were as susceptible to the strain of serotype 10 as were nonvaccinated control swine, whereas vaccinated swine were immune and control swine were susceptible to the strains of serotypes 1 and 2. The strain of serotype 9 was not sufficiently virulent to induce acute generalized erysipelas, even in control swine. Arthritis was not prevented by vaccination, but its frequency and severity were less in vaccinated swine exposed to strains of serotype 1 or 2 than in those exposed to strains of serotype 9 or 10. Vaccinated mice were significantly (P less than 0.05) more susceptible to the strains of serotype 10 than to those of any other serotype tested.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Prevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in swine in Illinois in 1992.

A serologic survey that tested for antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii was conducted, using the modified direct agglutination test, on 6,965 serum samples collected from swine in 179 herds in Illinois in 1992. In breeding swine, results for 1,057 of 5,080 (20.8%) sera tested were positive. In growing/finishing swine, results for 59 of 1,885 (3.1%) sera tested were positive, which was substantially lower than the seroprevalence rate estimated in a serosurvey of pigs from abattoirs in Illinois in 1983 and 1984. Data in the survey reported here were summarized for herds having at least 28 samples/herd. Among all herds, the median, mean, and maximum seroprevalence rates were 6.7, 16.1, and 96.8%, respectively, for breeding swine in 172 herds, and 0.0, 2.8, and 20.0%, respectively, for growing/finishing pigs in 44 herds. Among the 172 herds with breeding swine, 61 (35.5%) had no seropositive pigs. Among the 44 herds with growing/finishing swine, 28 (63.6%) had no seropositive pigs. A logistic regression model was used to estimate that the cumulative risk of T gondii infection for swine in herds containing seropositive pigs was 9.0% by 6 months of age for a herd that had the median seroprevalence rate. In contrast, for pigs in herds in the upper quartile of seroprevalence rates, risk of infection by 6 months of age was estimated to be greater than 20%. Analysis of these data would suggest that overall prevalence of T gondii infection in pigs from Illinois is low; nevertheless, there is a small proportion of farms for which the rate of T gondii infection in swine is moderately high.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1976

Vesicular exanthema of swine.

Vesicular exanthema of swine (VES) was first recognized in 1932. At the time, eradication measures and, later, quarantine procedures were instituted and extension of the disease to surrounding farms appeared to have been prevented. Between 1932 and 1936, however, seemingly unrelated epizootics continued among swine herds being fed raw garbage. In 1936, VES disappeared only to reappear in 1939. The disease was contained within California until 1952, at which time it spread to all the major swine producing areas of the United States. The disease was eradicated in 1959, through the enforcement of laws prohibiting the feeding of raw garbage to swine. Other than the association with raw garbage, a reservoir for VES virus (VESV) was never found. In 1972, a virus isolated from California sea lions--and thus named the San Miguel sea lion virus (SMSV)--proved to be distinguishable from VESV. When SMSV was injected into swine, clinical signs of vesicular exanthema developed, leading to the conclusion that, for all practical purposes, SMSV and VESV were the same. To date, 5 species of marine mammals and 2 species of terrestrial mammals, including feral swine, have been shown to possess antibodies to 1 or more of the 4 distinct SMSV serotypes. Current evidence suggests that SMSV infections occur among both terrestrial and marine mammals inhabiting the California coastal zones. This and the practice of shipping frozen meats known to contain SMSV to mink ranches in Utah point to the possibility that domestic swine in the United States are occasionally being exposed to SMSV. Although marine mammals are a source of SMSV, the primary virus reservoir is thought to be 1 or more submammalian marine species common to the southern California coastline. Such a primary reservoir presumably is the source of a new SMSV serotypes infecting marine mammals and may have been the original source of the VESV serotypes that infected swine through the intermediary of raw garbage.

Abortion, Veterinary↗